Reflexology
The Definitive Practitioner’s Manual

Recommended by the International Therapy Examination Council for Students and Practitioners

BERYL CRANE

Dedication

I would like to dedicate this book to my husband of 43 years, who I love dearly for his patience, understanding and love, which were sorely tested throughout the time that this book was in the making.

Contents

Title Page

Dedication

Foreword

Preface

What is reflexology?

Aims of this book and how to use it

1 A brief history of reflexology

Egyptian origins

Chinese origins

The history of the zone concept

2 A holistic approach to medicine

The concept of holistic medicine

Theories and philosophies

What is energy?

How the nervous system works

Meridians and nerves

The zones and the divisions of the feet and hands

Western medicine and complimentary medicine working together

3 Basics of consultation and diagnosis

The fundamentals of good practice

Clinical observation

Questioning

Listening

The case history

Diagnosis

Recommending treatment

Support and care of the client

4 Basics of the reflexology treatment session

Preparation of the client and yourself

Relaxation techniques, support techniques and protective hold procedures

‘Back-up’ or cross reflexes, or zone-related reflexes

Interpretation of painful reflex points

Reactions to expect during treatment

Reactions that may arise between treatments

5 The feet

Anatomy and biomechanics of the foot

Observation and analysis

The systems of the body and their respective zones on the feet

Treatment procedure

Foot exercises

6 The hands

History and theory of hand treatment

Anatomy and physiology

Observation and analysis

Disorders

Treatment procedure

Hand exercises

7 The ear, face and head

The ear

The face and head

8 A-Z of disorders of the body

How to use this chapter

9 Disorders of the skin: a practical application of reflexology

Anatomy and physiology

Disorders

Analysis and treatment

Skin care routine

10 Stress

What is stress?

Physiology of stress

Stress as a cause of illness

Physical and mental indicators of stress

The role of reflexology in stress

Simple stress management techniques

11 Natural nutrition

What is nutrition?

Components of a good diet

Additives

A healthy lifestyle

What is an allergy?

Disorders where diet and reflexology work together

12 The reflexology practice

Setting up a practice

Ethics

Professionalism

Making an introductory presentation to an audience

Appendices

Appendix I Statutory support systems

Appendix II First aid in the treatment room

Appendix III Complementary therapies that may assist reflexology

Appendix IV Astrology and health

Appendix V Some questions that students may be asked in an examination

Appendix VI Useful addresses

Glossary

Index

Plates

Acknowledgements

About the Author

Copyright

About the Publisher

Foreword

The author has been known to me for many years and I have great respect, not only for her expertise in the field of reflexology, but for her very wide knowledge of the subject.

As a complementary therapy, reflexology is daily gaining the approbation of patients and other professionals including general practitioners and hospital doctors. This is due to the work and dedication of reflexologists, of whom Beryl Crane is an outstanding example.

It gives me the greatest of pleasure to recommend this excellent and well researched book to all serious students of this therapy.

Dr William Arnold-Taylor MSc, PhD

Member Clinical Forensic Medicine;

Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine;

Chairman of the International Therapy Examination Council Limited

Preface
What is reflexology?

Reflexology is a science based on the principle that reflexes, or areas, in the feet, hands and other parts of the body relate to the internal organs and other structures of the body.

There are several definitions of the word ‘reflex’, all of which are relevant here:

• ‘an involuntary unconscious response to stimuli’

• ‘a mirror image’

• ‘to turn or be directed back’.

The definition of ‘ology’ is the study of that branch of science. The term ‘microcosm’ is also relevant: this is defined as ‘a small system regarded as a little self-contained world that represents all the qualities or activities of something much larger’. In reflexology the feet, hands and ears are seen as a perfect microcosm of the body, with a somatic replication of all organs, glands and muscles of the body on to an area or a reflex point. Palpation or pressure on such points helps to achieve balance in the body by normalizing the function of internal organs through a system of zones that link particular reflexes with particular organs. This treatment by pressure helps to stimulate the body’s healing process and to allow the person to achieve physical and emotional well-being. There are many ways to apply pressure. Even wringing the hands or rubbing them together can be quite beneficial, while putting the fingertips together helps to stimulate the brain, and squeezing the fingers can relieve a headache or toothache. The points to which pressure is applied are located by reference to both Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and the zone theory. The area just behind the ball of the foot is known as ‘Bubbling Spring’ (or ‘Well’) point, a vital point in the Chinese meridian theory; this is the same point where the solar plexus is represented on the feet in the reflexology theory. It is on these minute reflex areas that the reflexologist will apply precise alternating pressure techniques, thus bringing about a therapeutic effect on the corresponding area of the body.

Reflexology is truly a holistic non-invasive therapy, where the practitioner sees the patient as a whole; it is most important that the practitioner is aware of this concept from the onset of treatment, as it is this approach and perspective that is so advantageous. Patients’ problems should not be viewed as just a bad shoulder or stiff neck and so forth. The body does not function as an individual part but as an interaction of many structures and systems (see chapter 2).

Reflexology is a must for the 21st century. We need to make this age-old therapy an essential part of everyday life for all, young and old alike. Reflexology treatment has many benefits. It leads to a better functioning of the circulatory system, as blood flow is improved, taking all the nutrients to the appropriate parts more efficiently. Blood and nerve supply to muscles improves, aiding and relaxing muscle spasm and tension. The treatment also promotes good muscle tone through nerve stimulation, so reflexology helps compensate for lack of exercise in cases of illness or old age. It also promotes a more active peripheral vascular return. This is especially helpful in people who have a sedentary lifestyle, whose skeletal muscles often lack the ability of squeezing the veins to increase the venous blood pressure; as a result of the therapy their hearts do not have to work quite so hard to bring about the venous return. The person often finds the therapy warming and exhilarating, as it calms the nervous system. Since stress-related problems do not seem to have the same adverse effects the person is better able to cope. Reflexology can in fact be both sedative and stimulating to the nervous system; this is why it benefits and relieves pain in many nervous and autoimmune disorders. Also, the processes of elimination work more efficiently, so that there is no accumulation of excess waste within the system, which many therapists consider the primary cause of disease. Stimulating the circulation helps the elimination of excess waste products and contributes to increase of excretion of fluids. The treatment generally also lessens inflammation, pain, swelling, heat and redness, which may occur as reactions of the body’s tissues to injury. In cases of injury, in reflexology there is no need to touch the impaired part itself. Stimulation to the lymphatics helps the oedema that is often the body’s reaction to injury, and the accumulation of fluids that could also be the result of a defective kidney or a circulatory disorder.

Research on its physiological effects is still in its very early stages; many studies of treatment outcomes have been published but more in-depth clinical trials are needed to verify the many noted outcomes and to test some of the hypotheses so that the possible theories of action can be elucidated. Reflexologists worldwide are communicating with each other to further research that is not just anecdotal evidence, but demonstrates comprehensive outcomes showing the benefits of treatment; however, more advanced study of how and why reflexology works is still needed. This will be achieved only when research moves in the direction of standardized, randomized, controlled studies of the reflexology treatment. Studies to date have shown how reflexology has a sedative or stimulating effect on the nervous system depending on the type (firm or gentle pressure) and length of treatment. There is also the question of whether it is stimulating or sedating nerve pathways (for a full discussion of the nervous system and reflexology see chapter 2). The tradition of pressure for relieving pain has been under much discussion since the late 1800s. Many great medical men have been involved in studies of reflexes and how nerve signals are transmitted, and have shown how such pressure affects the autonomic nervous system, which in turn improves the function of all the organs and structures of the body. Studies of nerve innervation have demonstrated that such pressure either increases or decreases the rate and strength of the heartbeat, depending on whether the sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system is stimulated. Analysis of the sensory stimulus to the nerve endings by touch shows how reflexology enables the body to provide better functioning of all the structures and organs within it. There is a hypothesis that reflexology treatment may also encourage the process of cell renewal, acting at cellular level to provide better intercellular communication. Studies on outcomes of treatment show that the sensory stimuli to all the reflexes aids the body in repairing itself. Theories of its effect include activation of the sebaceous glands and sweat glands, which help in moisturizing and lubricating the skin. Other glands and organs would also benefit by stimulation of the blood circulation, because this is like a transport system, and through the continuous flow of blood around the body nutrients from the alimentary tract are distributed to all tissues of the body. So more oxygen from the lungs reaches all the tissues, and waste material (including carbon dioxide) is transported to the excretory surfaces. Hormones are transported from endocrine glands to other organs and tissues. In the immune system the lymphocytes, which have a defensive action in removing waste, germs and dead cells, are activated. The leucocytes, or white blood cells, are transported to the site of infection quicker, helping to reduce pain and stiffness of joints, improving mobility, and helping in antibody production.

Reflexology is the subject of many research programmes, each organization conducting its own investigation. The many societies and associations, together with the present-day umbrella bodies within the UK, are all recording outcomes of treatment. We also have a research Council for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. The International Council of Reflexologists in America is made up from many leading health care practitioners from around the world, all with the same aims and goals. This organization openly encourages research and is also promoting critical thinking skills amongst its members. The latest news from the research committee of the federation of Danish reflexologists, the Forenede Danske Zoneterapeuter (FDZ) (summarized from an article in their newsletter), is as follows: In 1995 the National Board of Health Council for Alternative Treatment published the results of a countrywide study entitled ‘Headaches and reflexological treatment’ in which 220 patients were treated by 78 reflexologists throughout the country; they were monitored from the time they decided to begin reflexology treatment until they finished the course, and again 3 months after the final treatment. Seventy-eight per cent of patients reported that they had been either cured (23 per cent) or helped (55 per cent). These results are reported with the permission of Christine Issel (see Useful addresses).

Today there is no concise explanation of the rationale of how and why reflexology works, that is accepted by the medical fraternity. Just like any other therapy, however, so much depends on the practitioner in the art of using this technique. It is often said that a poorly trained reflexology practitioner will not necessarily harm you; however, the benefits of receiving treatment from a competently trained practitioner are astounding and it can work wonders if applied correctly.

We should not need to postulate about the benefits of reflexology treatment, because any recipient can attest whether they are in pain prior to treatment. There are comparatively few that leave with the same degree of pain and discomfort. While this relief may not last until the next session, on subsequent visits the problem will often right itself. Most reflexologists will also substantiate that since they have been practising reflexology they often themselves feel better; this may indicate that the stimulation of their own fingers is affecting their nervous systems and benefiting them in some way.

The following chapters explain the history and theory of reflexology by reference to the concepts of zones, reflexes, meridians and nerve pathways. It is to be hoped that by the end of this book, readers will agree that it does not matter whether one is working on a meridian, or a reflex, or a nerve pathway, or an energy line. They may decide just to accept the zone theory. Whatever is transmitted by the technique is powerful and potent to the body. Reflexology achieves homeostasis of all the systems of the body, through the reduction of the effects of stress, and by giving complete relaxation to the recipient.

Aims of this book and how to use it

The aims and objectives of this text are to give clear guidelines for the student or practitioner of reflexology to follow. Each chapter is clearly defined with its contents, so that the reader may obtain a brief outline of the facts and information within each section. This will enable the reader to cross-reference against any previous data.

This manual also undertakes to raise the standards and levels of competency of the student or practitioner. It is not a book on anatomy and physiology, but looks at the wider understanding that is needed in this totally holistic, natural therapy. The reader is made aware of the cellular make-up of the body, and of how each cell has one particular job to do, and even though it has its own in-built chemistry to carry out a particular function it does not accomplish all the activities that are necessary for its existence. This is all brought together by the co-ordination of the different mechanisms of the body to achieve balance and unity.

Material is presented to enable students to understand the different levels of understanding required for reflexology, and various ideas and theories are discussed. Readers should acquire a knowledge of how deeply relaxing reflexology is and how this benefits a wide range of disorders, whether related to stress, emotional or mental, or even more deep-rooted tensions leading to manifestation of physical problems. The expertise and enlightenment gained from this manual will enable the reader to conduct a therapeutic healing session for all ages, from the very young to the more elderly person, to the sick and infirm.

This practitioner’s manual enriches your knowledge and understanding of how reflexology works and how it is beneficial to those who are extremely fragile in health and how reflexology works safely by gently removing congestion or blockages, restoring balance and improving energy generally throughout the body. It explains how our feet are the very foundation of our body, and how any deviation from normal structure or function can be reflected back into the body, often resulting in stress and imbalances to organs and a burden on the skeletal function. All these observations are helpful in diagnostic techniques and foot analysis.

The text also explains how to use reflexology without risk, as with the correct treatment there is no great shock to the system, and each session is balanced according to each individual’s needs, thus allowing the body to adapt to the necessary changes that take place over a period of a few weeks, with more chronic problems often needing a little more time before they respond.

The book utilizes the concepts of zones and meridians throughout, and these are detailed in chapter 2. These channels are systematically mapped out showing the reflex point and acupuncture (acu) points that are linked to specific organs and functions of the body. This manual also takes you through the history of reflexology, from the very early beginnings of the discovery that pressure on specific areas of the skin brought about a therapeutic action on the functioning of different body organs, to the present-day standard and refinement of this therapy.

The text also outlines how reflexology has currently been lifted to new heights with in-depth training now covering a period of an academic year, setting high standards in professional practice. Values and ethics also are an integral part of the reflexologist’s work. Good and safe practice is explained throughout this manual, while professional standards are detailed and encouraged. Advice on setting up and running a reflexology practice is also included.

In conclusion, this work has the following aims:

• to give a knowledge of the history and theory of reflexology from its early methods and aims through to present-day evidence of the art and skill, and current techniques used throughout the world in clinical reflexology

• to develop the student or practitioner’s understanding and appreciation of the principles of reflexology and the holistic concept

• to create opportunities for the student or practitioner to learn how to assess the state of a person’s health and be able to identify where there may be an imbalance within the body by: observation – of the patient or client and of the hands, feet and ears; a knowledge of hand, foot, and nail conditions that may relate to a patient’s health; use of correct consultation procedures, including listening skills; palpation of specific reflex points, and understanding of the basis of reflex stimulation to analyse imbalances and to boost the body’s own healing process

• to explore promotion and maintenance of each individual’s health and emotional well-being through palpation of specific reflex points, and how these relate to the zone theory and the meridian theory

• to develop a student’s or practitioner’s competence and improve their practice, by making them aware of research and investigative procedures in relation to complementary medicine

• to enable students and practitioners to develop an understanding of general practice management.

By the end of the manual the student or practitioner will be able to:

• make a diagnostic assessment of a client before treatment, taking into account the previous medical history and contraindications if any, and evaluate all other relevant factors that may cause them an imbalance

• be aware of their own abilities and when it is necessary to refer a patient to other health care professionals if so required

• complete a full and thorough competent treatment procedure employing all the clinical skills acquired throughout their course of study, including knowledge of the zone and meridian theories, and be able to adapt treatment accordingly in respect of specific areas to treat, amount of pressure and length of treatment

• evaluate treatment sessions through practice and experience throughout the course, and develop both skills and practice using the cyclical learning process, that is, assessing, planning, carrying out procedures, evaluating when needed, and improving if possible

• promote and implement values of good and safe practice in reviewing future treatments with patients, and discuss with them any factors that could affect their health, such as behaviour patterns, lifestyle, nutrition and diet

• analyse and discuss all relevant articles and contemporary research regarding the practice of reflexology, both hypothetical or speculative and established theories and facts, and take account of other therapies that would be an adjunct to it.

1 A brief history of reflexology

Healing by touch is as old as mankind. It requires insight, intuition and the use of specialized skills and techniques.

The word ‘massage’ comes from the ancient Arabic word ‘mass’, meaning ‘to touch or palpate’. Touch or massage has historically been used as a restorative to bring back health and strength. Many of the touch therapies are based on the theory that for good health the body’s energy must flow unimpeded, or that a holistic and integrated approach to maintain health should be followed. For instance, Hippocrates (460–375 BC) advocated a system of treatment that incorporated diet, fresh air and exercise (or gymnastics, as they were known then) and advised massage, or rubbing an area of the body, as a therapeutic relaxation.

This chapter examines the ancient and recent origins of reflexology, both in the West and in the Orient, and the recent development of the zone concept.

Egyptian origins

The Egyptian origins of reflexology can be seen in a frieze at the tomb of Ankhmahor that is thought to illustrate a reflexology treatment taking place (figures 1.1 and 1.2). This tomb in Saqqara is known as the ‘physician’s tomb’ owing to the marvellous portrayal of many medical scenes found on its walls. The tomb was discovered by V Loret in Egypt in 1897. Saqqara is one of the richest archaeological sites in Egypt, containing monuments constructed over a span of more than 3,000 years, the earliest being the Mastabas, the earlier name for a tomb. Saqqara is the largest necropolis found (a large burial ground of the ancient city). Activity was extremely intense in this area during the Old Kingdom.

The Old Kingdom encompassed the period from the 1st to the 6th Dynasty when all the great pyramids were built in Giza and in Saqqara this period lasted from 3000 to 2250 BC when it came abruptly to an end, owing to a civil war breaking out, and the whole empire collapsed. To the Ancient Egyptians the afterlife was just as important as the earthly life, hence the reason they surrounded themselves with many murals and pictures on the walls of their many tombs; these portray agricultural scenes and abundant harvests as well as hunting, fishing and dancing scenes and many games. All of these were of an afterlife modelled on a visionary earthly life. Ankhmahor was an able master-builder and was considered an expert because he controlled the work of the many sculptors at the tomb. This project disclosed his keen interest in medicine as he displayed recurrent images of medical themes and surgical operations taking place on the walls. His interest in pathology was attributed to his admiration of another architect named Imhotep, who was made an object of worship and was later known as Imuthes, God of Medicine. (Imhotep built the first step pyramid for King Zoser the Pharaoh of the 3rd Dynasty in 2686 BC when Zoser was the King of Upper and Lower Egypt.)

Figure 1.1 Illustration of patients having hands and toes treated (lower picture) and a patient having hand treatment (top picture), from the tomb of Ankhmahor.

In the Masataba of ‘Ankhmahor’ on the west door entrance are two registers representing the treatment of hands and feet. These are referred to as a manicure and pedicure by Alexander Badawy in his book The Tomb of Ankhmahor at Saqqara in which he gives a very fine detailed translation of the wall scenes. In one scene on the wall the right hand of one person is being treated and the other person is having a toe on the left foot treated. The text reads: (patient) ‘Make these give strength.’ The operator responds, ‘I will do to thy pleasure sovereign!’ (This answer is between the two operators, so it could be valid for both.) The patient who is having his toe treated is begging, ‘Do not cause pain to these.’ There also appears to be a probe in the operator’s hand (see figure 1.1) (although this is not shown in the many reproduced copies that are included in many reflexology books). An upper fragment on the same wall shows a patient having both hands treated; however, the inscription was badly defaced (see figure 1.1).

Figure 1.2 Patients having massage or manipulation of the foot or leg and shoulder, from the tomb of Ankhmahor.

Another relief shows massage or manipulation to the foot or leg and shoulder (figure 1.2), which could indicate some form of pressure therapy. As massage was often mentioned in many of the texts and old medical papyri it is quite reasonable to believe that this could be a form of reflexology treatment taking place on the hands and feet with massage or manipulation to the legs and back.

Ankhmahor himself is represented on two door-jambs in identical striding attitude. The inscriptions indicate the many titles he held; these include ‘Hereditary Prince’, ‘Count’, ‘Chief Justice’, ‘Vizier’ and ‘Court Physician’.

Chinese origins

Ancient Chinese writings described a pressure therapy using the fingers and thumbs. Acupressure is an old Oriental therapy, ‘acu’ meaning ‘needle point’; however, finger pressure was used long before needles. There are different types of acupressure, from the very gentle to deep digital and thumb pressure. There were many early books written on massage or ‘examining foot method’ as it was then called. In reflexology, the varying pressures are used according to each individual’s requirements and the diagnostic techniques are very similar to those used in Chinese acupressure.

In the Sung Dynasty (AD 960–1280) a paper that first appeared in Essentials of Preserving Life showed some exercise routines, which, when repeated, were supposed to be excellent for health. One of these routines was to stretch the hands forward and clench firmly the balls of the extended feet and lower the head as if paying homage; this was repeated 12 times, after which you then returned to the crossed leg position and placed your clenched hands back into your lap. Many ancient diagrams survived of these early ‘Dao Yin’ exercises that were the earliest forms of Chi Kung (Qigong); these were traditionally considered representations from the Chinese ancients of longevity each of whom had their own special method of healing diseases. One in particular is an acupressure cure for lumbago or any low back pain; it shows the person facing the wall, pressing the palm of the right hand against the wall, letting the left hand drop naturally; the right foot is also placed against the wall, and the person then proceeds to exhale very slowly 18 times. This is then repeated with the left hand and foot. This exercise is claimed to heal strain of the lumbar muscles, and relieve lower back pain and lumbago. These actions indicate how important the hands and feet are considered to be in maintaining good health in TCM.

Acupuncture itself developed throughout the early Shang Dynasty in the 16th to 11th centuries BC. It became a method of treating disease and pain by the insertion of many different types and sizes of needles into specific areas of the body. These areas, or acupuncture points (acupoints), were thought to lie on lines or channels known as meridians (see chapter 2 for a full description). Acupressure and acupuncture were, however, only a small part of the treatment of TCM. The system also included a vast herbal tradition and dietary practices.

Buddhism was a religion of East and Central Asia that grew from the teachings of Gautama Buddha. His philosophy was that pureness of spirit was the answer to all suffering. Buddhism spread to China around the time of the Han Dynasty (about 206 BC). There is evidence from this period that in ancient times the feet symbolized many things. A Buddha’s footprints carved in the rock at Kusinara, China, shows signs on the second, third, fourth and fifth toes depicting the Sun, in ancient times possibly symbolizing the Qi energy within the toes (see figure 1.3).

Yin, Yang and Qi

The terms ‘Yin’ and ‘Yang’ are widely used in Traditional Chinese Medicine. They describe, for instance, the quality of the Qi (Chi) energy, which flows through channels called meridians. Illness is caused by an imbalance of Yin and Yang in the body. The idea of Yin and Yang polarities appears continually throughout Chinese thought. Yin is conceived as the soft, inactive female principle or polarity in the body and in the universe generally, while Yang is the active, male principle or polarity. Although opposites, they are also interrelated, and to keep healthy these two opposing but complementary energies must always be balanced.

One energy ascends in the body; the other descends. TCM theory states that if the blood and the energy are not in equilibrium, there is disharmony between the Yin and Yang qualities, and illness will soon follow. A blockage or malfunction is considered to indicate a deficiency or excess of energy of one or the other within the body, manifesting as a functional disturbance, or an imbalance in the way in which an organ or body system functions; from this, physical ill-health can develop. A saying that describes this idea is ‘If there is a kink in the life force disease will manifest’. In disease these terms also refer to Yang being all acute problems, in which the patient feels hot and may have a temperature, and is restless. Yin indicates a more chronic problem, in which the patient is weak and often cold and has no wish to move about.

Figure 1.3 Buddha’s foot, showing the Sun sign on the toes, possibly indicating Qi.

Good health depends on the correct balance between these two opposites, the negative and positive. To follow the general principles of Yin and Yang one needs also to be aware of the environment and the changes of the season; all of the above had to be taken into consideration to preserve life. Today China is known for its many centenarians, and longevity is something all Chinese people cherish; many feel that it can be attained through correct living and the use of TCM principles.

The Zang-fu organs and the meridians

TCM theory divides the body into 12 organ systems, 6 of which are Yang (Fu or hollow organs): Stomach, Small Intestine, Large Intestine, Bladder, Gall Bladder and Triple Burner (or Triple Heater or Triple Energizer), and 6 of which are Yin (Zang or solid organs): Heart, Liver, Spleen (and Pancreas), Lungs, Kidneys and Pericardium. Together they are called the Zang-fu.

Each of the Zang organs is related to one of the Fu organs. So there are six pairs. Often when treating a patient, these Yin and Yang organs can be coupled together because they are so closely related, and treatment of one will often affect the other. The pairs are: the Liver and Gall Bladder, the Spleen and Stomach, the Lungs and Large Intestine, the Kidneys and Bladder, the Heart and Small Intestine, and the Pericardium and Triple Burner. The Triple Burner (Sanjiao) regulates the functioning of all the Zang-fu organs; it also acts as a passageway for the movement of all fluids.

The organs are also designated according to the Five Elements theory. According to ancient Chinese traditions, the elements comprise Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal and Water. These elements are thought to influence each other, in a cyclical manner.

The balance of Yin and Yang within each of the above organ systems is regulated and influenced by the Yin-Yang balance of the Qi flowing through the meridians connected with them. This Qi is particularly easy to influence for the purposes of treatment at particular points called acupuncture points (or acupoints). Acupoints at the extremities (hands and feet) are thought to be the most powerful to use (see figure 1.9).

There are 12 major meridians in the body and limbs, each connected to one organ system; 6 connect the hands with the face or chest, and 6 connect the feet with the face or chest. These meridians are often classified in three ways:

1. According to their cycle of energy. This is as follows: Lungs, Large Intestine, Stomach, Spleen, Heart, Small Intestine, Bladder, Kidneys, Pericardium, Triple Burner, Gall Bladder, Liver. The cycle of energy goes: hands-hands, feet-feet, hands-hands, feet-feet, hands-hands, feet-feet; we can balance the energy by working on this theory.

2. According to the division of the two groups into Yin and Yang: the Yin meridians of the feet and legs are: the Liver, Spleen and Kidneys – these ascend from the feet to the breast (figure 1.4) the Yin meridians of the hands and arms are: Lungs, Heart, Pericardium – these descend from the breast to terminate in the fingers (figure 1.5) the Yang meridians of the hands and arms are: Large Intestine, Small Intestine and Triple Burner – these ascend from the fingers to the face (figure 1.6) the Yang meridians of the feet and legs are: the Stomach, Bladder, Gall Bladder – these descend from the face to the toes (figure 1.7).

3. According to where they are located: the six meridians on the hands and arms include the Lungs, Large Intestine, Pericardium, Triple Burner, Heart and Small Intestine. The six meridians on the feet and legs are the Kidneys, Spleen, Liver, Stomach, Gall Bladder and Bladder.

There is an involved association between an organ and a meridian. They are often paired together because of the anatomical closeness of the corresponding meridian, which links the Yin and the Yang organ. In reflexology this opposite point becomes an area of assistance to work.

We begin to see a combination between the groups as follows:

• The three Yin meridians descend from the breast area to the hands (see figure 1.5); that is the Lungs, Heart and Pericardium, (for details of each meridian pathway see figures 2.8–2.20).

• The three Yang meridians of the hands ascend from the hand to the face (see figure 1.6) that is the Large Intestine, Small Intestine and Triple Burner.

• The three Yin meridians of the feet ascend from the feet to breast area (see figure 1.4); that is the Spleen, Kidneys and Liver.

• The three Yang meridians of the feet descend from the face to the feet (see figure 1.7); that is the Stomach, Bladder and Gall Bladder.

Figure 1.4 The three ascending Yin meridians of the feet (Spleen, Liver and Kidneys)

Figure 1.5 The three descending Yin meridians of the hands (Lungs, Heart and Pericardium)

Figure 1.6 The three ascending Yang meridians of the hands (Large Intestine, Triple Burner and Small Intestine)

Figure 1.7 The three descending Yang meridians of the feet (Stomach, Bladder and Gall Bladder)

Figure 1.8 (a) Eight major meridians converge on the face. (b) The face has three originating points, three terminating points, and two terminating points from the vessels.

There are many interactions between the organs and meridians, and they are paired in many ways. Some old doctrines link the Yin organs in a cycle, and then the Yang organs, in a theory that attempts to describe the movement of Qi energy. One idea is that there is an area of the body where Qi undergoes a fundamental change in polarity, where Yin is converted into Yang or vice versa (figure 1.9). One speculation is that at such an area or point the therapist gets a much more positive result, because the energy is unstable and nearer to the surface here. However, there are areas which contain the points where the ascending Yang meridians terminate on the face and where the descending Yang meridians originate from prior to descending to the feet: these are thought to be more stable yet not so potent. Yet if this is so, why is it that these facial distal points are so powerful? It is important to note that there are eight major meridians converging on the facial area (see figures 1.8a and 1.8b, and chapter 7). Is this why the ears, head and facial points are so effective? This interchange of energies takes place on the fingers of the upper limbs as the Yin energy is near its end, and the Yang energy is about to commence; this fluctuation extends from the fingers to the elbow. So we see the three Yin meridians conveying their energy to the three Yang meridians, anywhere in this area. This leads to the traditional pairing of these organs on the hand:

• Lungs (Yin) paired with Large Intestine (Yang)

• Heart (Yin) paired with Small Intestine (Yang)

• Pericardium (Yin) paired with Triple Burner (Yang).

The same metamorphosis takes place on the feet, with the area from the tips of the toes to the knee being the most advantageous area to work, and around the ankles being very potent. Again, a pairing of the Yin and Yang meridians takes place:

• Stomach (Yang) paired with Spleen (Yin)

• Bladder (Yang) paired with Kidneys (Yin)

• Gall Bladder (Yang) paired with Liver (Yin).

It is important when treating always to balance these points, incorporating pressure points of both upper and lower limbs. This stabilizes the energy from the upper part of the body with that of the lower part of the body. The combination of such points is very forceful and effective, so working upper pressure points with lower pressure points or working on the paired organ becomes a powerful therapy.

The Chinese often utilize these combination points according to their forceful action or their compatibility. The meridian channels form a complete circuit and TCM principles state that these energies within each meridian are balanced; hence, on that account they have always been used in treatment. The points on the extremities are referred to as the fountain head or well points (figure 1.9), for instance those at the tips of the fingers and the tips of the toes, and KI-1 located at the centre of the ball of the foot. These are considered to be extremely powerful as they are barely skin deep at this terminal or starting point, so they are easy to stimulate by palpation as is done in reflexology. The spring points are extremely potent and forceful; these are found around the wrist and the ankles, with the feet points being more dynamic than those of the hands. At the sea points, which lie at the elbows or knees, the energy is more general and less active, achieving a slower response.

Recent history

When the People’s Republic of China was formed in 1949 TCM came under threat because of superstitions and ancient theories and was almost lost. It was Chairman Mao who came to the rescue. The story goes that he became very ill and orthodox medicine did not help him, so he turned to the traditional folk medicine, which saved him. Following this, he declared ‘Traditional Chinese Medicine is of immense value, it needs to be constantly explored and further developed’. Because of this, since 1950 work was encouraged on research and tests on TCM, and Western medicine and TCM were practised side by side. Research on TCM has continued in China and has been maintained over the last 40 years and more recently they have also researched treatment by reflexology. To date the China Reflexology Association have accumulated over 10,000 case histories on reflexology treatments. There are 31 provinces in China, half of which have set up a reflexology branch. Among 7,000 members of the national and the local associations, there are now over 1,500 medical doctors in China who practise reflexology in their hospitals, or clinics, sanatoriums, and other centres.

Figure 1.9 The most potent areas to work

The history of the zone concept
The founder of zone therapy

Zone therapy is a system discovered many years ago by an eminent American physician, William H Fitzgerald, who was born in 1872 and who died in Stamford, Connecticut on 21 October 1942. He was an MD in Hartford, Connecticut. Dr Fitzgerald graduated from the University of Vermont in 1895 and worked his first 2¹/₂ years at the Boston City Hospital; he then went on to serve a further 2 years at the Central London Ear, Nose and Throat (ENT) Hospital in England (1902). This was followed by a further 2 years in Vienna’s ENT Hospital under Professor Politzer and Professor Otto Chiari, who were well known in the medical world at that time. All of this gives some indication of Dr Fitzgerald’s qualities as a doctor and surgeon. Dr Fitzgerald was senior nose and throat surgeon at St Francis Hospital, Hartford, Connecticut for several years. It was during that period that he made his findings of zone therapy, as it was called at this time, known to the medical world.

He developed this therapy because he observed, while working, that when applying pressure over certain points of the toes and hands, and other parts of the body, if the pressure was firm enough it caused a type of anaesthesia in a limited area. This enabled him to perform minor operations on the nose and throat without using cocaine and other local analgesics while the patient could be treated without pain. Fitzgerald stated in his book that pressure over any bony eminence, or upon the zones corresponding to the location of the injury, would tend to relieve pain, and that not only would it relieve pain but if pressures were firm enough it would produce an anaesthetic effect, often removing the cause of the pain.

Dr Fitzgerald published his first book in 1917 with Dr Edwin Bowers. The title read ‘Zone Therapy, or Relieving Pain at Home’. In this he related all his important findings on zone therapy. A zone is an area or part that is marked off, with stated qualities. Fitzgerald diagrammatically depicted this in his early drawings by dividing the human body into zones both anterior and posterior (figure 1.10) and he speculated that the body could be divided into ten such longitudinal (meaning vertical) zones, five each side of the median or middle line. The first ran from the medial edge of the great toe through the centre of the nose to the brain, and then out to the thumb or vice versa. He spoke of these zones as numbering one to five on the right side of the body and the same on the left side. He called them ‘ten invisible currents of energy through the body’ in line with the fingers and toes. (Note that the zones extended from the toe to the brain and out to the thumb or fingers or vice versa, not from the brain to the toe and brain to fingers, as stated in some books.) Fitzgerald also said that his five lines marked out and represented the centre of the respective zones. (Many books do not show this but instead depict four lines coming from each of the webs of the toes, showing the digits as the ten zones.) He then demonstrated the correlation between areas in distant parts of the body and how pressure of between 2 and 10 pounds on given fingers or toes would alleviate pain anywhere in a particular zone. He also stated that the upper and lower surfaces of the joint and side areas must all be pressed for good results (figure 1.11). Each zone could be worked on either hands or feet because the zones ran either way. The distance between the area treated and the organ was of no importance as the whole zone would be treated.

Fitzgerald outlined how pressure over the great toe or on the corresponding thumb helped the entire first zone; this first zone included the incisors and cuspid teeth, and an analgesic effect would often be felt throughout the zone. The second zone included the bicuspid and the third zone the two molars (knowing the zonal pathway enables you to work on the corresponding area for teeth problems). He stated that zones 4 and 5 usually merged in the head. The shoulder and axilla were in all five zones. Also he considered that in zone 4 was the middle ear. (My opinion is that the eustachian tube and middle ear combined are in zones 3 and 4.)

Figure 1.10 (a) The zones of the body according to Dr William Fitzgerald. (b) Corresponding longitudinal and lateral zones in the body and the foot.

Figure 1.11 Applying pressure to all surfaces of the finger

Zone therapy demonstrates the correlation and interdependence of all parts of the body. In his chapter ‘Zone therapy – for doctors only’, Fitzgerald commented: ‘six years ago I accidentally discovered that pressure with a cotton-tipped probe in the mucocutaneous margin of the nose gave an anaesthetic result’. He also went on to explain about how pressure on hands and feet and over joints reproduced the same characteristic results in pain relief. He stated that, when the pain was relieved, the condition that produced the pain was most generally relieved also, and that this led to the ‘mapping out’ of these various areas and associated connections and also to the conditions influenced through them.

He wrote that clasping the hands firmly was effective for many conditions including nervousness, anxiety, insomnia. Also clasping them for 10 minutes would help all pulmonary problems and even the common cold, while changing the clasp position from one hand to the other for 10 minutes each time would help to relieve many minor symptoms and in some cases even more involved problems.

He stated that neck and thyroid problems could be relieved by using distal pressures on the base of the first phalanx of the great toe or thumb and second and third digits respectively. (This was clearly stated so that errors in later books should not arise.) For lumbago one should work on the edge of the palm in line with the ring and little finger, but the most rapid relief for sciatica was secured by attacking the soles of the feet. Fitzgerald often spoke of curing lumbago with a comb; his instructions were to press the teeth into the palmar surface of the thumb first and then the second and third fingers and occasionally work on the webs, especially between thumb and first finger, and to work even the very tops of fingers and right up to wrists as this would help the entire zone. The palmar surface of the hands was to be attacked for pains in the back of the body and the dorsal or top surfaces of hands and fingers for any problems in the anterior (front) surface of body.

He added that, for eye problems, pressure could be applied to the index finger and sometimes middle finger if the eyes were set far apart. He spoke of squeezing the big finger or corresponding toe for ear problems. Pictures showed the distal phalange being squeezed by thumb and forefinger, or tight elastic bands being placed around them; one of the most effective methods for ear problems was placing a clothes peg to the tip of the ring finger or the fingers on either side, or raising the nail of the fourth finger for tinnitus. This point is a known acupuncture point (see figure 6.8b).

Pressure was often applied using aluminium combs, pointed instruments, tight elastic bands, clothes pegs or clamps on the fingers or toes (figure 1.12). Fitzgerald also spoke of how to use pressure with fingers and thumbs from anything between 1 and 4 minutes. The use of the many non-electrical applications such as surgical clamps, aluminium combs, elastic bands, pegs and percussion motors never really caught on because they were so invasive. Fitzgerald also had ‘therapy bites’ and ‘therapy grips’; these were saw-edged articles or sometimes just metal combs. He even used rubber erasers. However, hands and the precise techniques of the correct pressure were all that was really needed.

He stated how all the zones must be free from irritation and obstructions to get the best results. His writings spoke of how important teeth were and how they should be preserved, also how offending corns, warts, calluses, etc. created an inflammatory process, which could cause a problem in a corresponding part of the body, how fingernails and toenails should be kept trimmed and how too much pressure from shoes could be detrimental to health within that zone.

Fitzgerald gave four different reasons in his book for how zone therapy worked (this is also outlined in the book Reflexology: Art, Science and History by Christine Issel). He stated:

Figure 1.12 (a) A method of treating earache, toothache and any pain. (b) Combs applied to the fingers to treat complications of the mid-thoracic and lower back, and other deep-seated problems.

while we know the fact of pain relief, through the laying on of the hands, or by kindred measures, we only know part of its reason for operation. There are several of these. They are:

1 Through the soothing influence of animal magnetism

2 The manipulation of the hand over the injured place tends to prevent a condition of venous stasis

3 Pressure over the seat of injury produced ‘blocked shock’ or ‘nerve block’ which meant that by pressing on the nerves running from the injured part to the brain area we inhibit or prevent the transmission to the brain of the knowledge of the injury

4 Pressure over any bony eminence injured, or pressure applied upon the zones corresponding to the location of the injury will tend to relieve pain. Not only will it relieve pain but if the pressure is strong enough and long enough and in the right place it will frequently produce analgesia, or insensibility to pain.

These are some of the many ailments that Fitzgerald said he treated:

Abdominal pains

Abortion (prevention of)

Angina pectoris

Arm problems

Asthma

Backache

Bladder problems

Blood pressure disorders

Brachial neuritis

Breast problems

Bronchitis

Cancer (he never claimed to cure)

Colds

Conjunctivitis

Constipation

Coughs

Deafness

Diarrhoea

Epilepsy

Eustachian tube problems

Eye problems

Falling hair

Foot problems

Gall bladder problems

Goitre

Haemorrhoids

Hay fever

Headache

Heart problems

Hiccough

Hysteria

Insomnia

Intestinal problems

Labour pain

Laryngitis

Liver problems

Locomotor ataxia

Loss of voice

Lumbago

Lung problems

Menses

Migraine

Morning sickness

Mumps

Nasal catarrh

Nervousness

Neuralgia

Ovarian problems

Paralysis

Pneumonia

Prostate

Quinsy

Rheumatism

Sciatica

Sea sickness

Sneezing

Sore throat

Testes problems

Throat problems

Tinnitus

Toothache

Torticollis

Tuberculosis

Tumours

Uterine problems

Whooping cough

Zone therapy and acupuncture points

Fitzgerald never clarified where he became acquainted with the theory of zone therapy. He only spoke about how he stumbled upon the concept of zone therapy, and never ever mentioned whether there was any Oriental connection. Many of his reflex areas do correlate with acupuncture points, however.

For example, he spoke of Signor Umberto Sorrentino, a noted tenor, relieving his tight throat by squeezing the lateral aspect of the forefinger and thumb; these are acupoints governing the vocal chords. He also spoke of digging the fingernails into the inner side of the thumb. There is another well-known acupoint at the base of the thumbnail known as Lung 11 (abbreviated to LU-11) and it is effective for any throat problems or shortness of breath.

Fitzgerald also stated that scratching stimulates, deep pressure relaxes and that this knowledge should help many stomach problems. Morning sickness in pregnancy responded to deep pressure on backs of hands or the palmar surface of wrist and forearms. There is an acupoint on the inner forearm just below the wrist, Pericardium 6 (PE-6), used for nausea including motion sickness (utilized commercially in ‘Sea-Band’ wristbands).

In his chapter on painless childbirth, Fitzgerald spoke of pressures applied to the foot to alleviate pain and to enhance advancement of labour. He related how when contractions began and the mother started to feel discomfort, he would press on the foot with the thumbs of both hands at the metatarsal phalangeal joint for 3 minutes each time, and this greatly relieved the pain for the mother-to-be. On the great toe on the medial edge at the base of the nail bed there is a well-used acupoint, Spleen 1 (SP-1); this point relieves spasm in the uterus. On the lateral edge there are two points, Liver 1 (LIV-1) at the base of the nail bed and Liver 2 (LIV-2) on the metatarsal phalangeal joint; both points are helpful for problems of the genitourinary tract. (All of these points can be located by reference to figure 5.41 and 6.8a and b.)

For any pain in the head Fitzgerald suggested using pressure on the middle or tips of the fingers and toes, holding this pressure for up to 3 minutes. On the toes and fingers are several acupoints that help the head area. The tips of the toes are known as ‘Qiduan’; the tips of the fingers are known as ‘Shixuan’, and both benefit the whole nervous system. On the dorsal surface of the foot are the following acupoints: SP-1, the first point on the great toe, and LIV-1, on the lateral edge of the great toe, both help to calm the mind; Gall Bladder 44 (GB-44), on the lateral edge of the fourth toe, relieves headaches and also helps eyes and ears; Bladder 67 (BL-67) alleviates headaches. On the hands, starting from the index finger, all meridians arise on the dorsal surface at the base of the nail. First Large Intestine 1 (LI-1), on the medial edge of the index finger, calms the mind, is for any anxiety, and will also restore consciousness; Pericardium 9 (PE-9), on the medial edge of the middle finger, helps calm the mind when anxious; Triple Burner 1 (TB-1) on the lateral edge of the ring finger, aids all ear problems and painful stiff shoulders; Heart 9 (HE-9), on the medial edge of the little finger, is a marvellous point for headaches; the Small Intestine (SI-1) meridian also arises on the little finger, but on the lateral edge, and points on this benefit headaches and stiff neck. For detailed maps of the meridian pathways see figures 2.8–2.20.) Did Fitzgerald know of the existence of these acupoints, or was his knowledge obtained solely from observations? It is interesting that all the three Yang meridians of the upper body run to the face and pass their energy to the descending three Yang meridians of the lower body. These Yang meridians could be seen as three continuous channels, from hands to face, face to foot, or vice versa. The three Yin meridians could also be seen as three continuous channels from foot to breast, breast to hands or hands to breast, and breast to foot. According to the philosophy of the meridians, these are accessible on both sides of the body, so we would see six channels almost running longitudinally, being accessible on either the feet or the hands (figure 1.13). Fitzgerald possibly saw this connection as the meridians merging in the body, and this encouraged him to experiment with his zonal theory. (Remember his comment: ‘Five lines there marked out. I have designed these figures in this manner purposely to avoid making six lines, which would be confusing to the student.’) This seems to be a simplified version incorporating all the meridians. So regardless of how he gained his insight he did produce a simplified version of the meridian theory.

We can also compare the practices derived from the meridian theory with those of the reflexology theory. For instance, in the latter in many cases the feet are found to be far more energetic and forceful in the outcome of treatment, while the hands still being potent but with less chance of creating too much movement of energy within the body; hence they must always be the first area to work on in anyone who is seriously ill, or the very young or elderly. This is understandable by reference to the interchange of Yin and Yang energy believed to occur on the hands and feet.

Figure 1.13 Merging of the meridians, making six lines of energy either side of the medial line

The statements by Fitzgerald that all zones must be free from irritation and obstruction, and that pressure could be given with rubber bands, pegs or clamps on any bony prominence, are of interest. The meridians in TCM are believed to lie alongside the bones, often following neural pathways. Fitzgerald expounded that pressure stimulated certain control centres in the medulla oblongata, or even functions carried out by the pituitary body and its many nerve pathways. The connection between nerve function, reflexology and acupuncture is discussed in detail in chapter 2.

Reflexology after Dr Fitzgerald

Dr William H Fitzgerald (1872–1942) was one of the most forward-thinking of medical men who became a natural healer through the art of using a pressure therapy to benefit and heal the human body. Many colleagues who assisted him throughout those early years of discovering the art of zone therapy went on to elaborate these techniques. This was based on the idea that the body was marked off with imaginary lines running from digits on the feet to the digits on the hands, each line passing through an organ. Pressure was applied on a given point and caused a reflex action; this led to normalization of muscle fibres in the corresponding organ within that zone, or stimulated the interrelated muscle to relax. The theory was based on observations over a period of people who were in discomfort; if they hurt themselves they rubbed the offending part. If they expected pain they would clench their fists or hold on tight to a chair. The hypothesis was developed that if the correct action were adopted then relief from pain would ensue and discomfort could be eased. The pressure was not just a nerve block with an analgesic effect or loss of sensation in that zone, rather that if the right pressures were used on the correct points the problem or disorder the person was suffering from could be alleviated.

From 1913 to about 1920 most work on zone therapy was being developed by two other medical physicians, Doctors Bowers and White. Edwin F Bowers MD, a well-known medical critic and writer, wrote an article on Dr Fitzgerald’s work. The method was unnamed at the time so he christened it ‘zone therapy’. He further elaborated that ‘Man was admittedly of chemical formation controlled by electrical energy, or electronic vibration’ introducing the concept of energy to the system. Dr Fitzgerald also taught George Starr White MD, who acknowledged in his writings A Lecture Course to Physicians (seventh edition revised) that credit must be given to Dr Fitzgerald for the discovery of mapping out the body into five zones each side of the medial line. He also stated that others had used a form of pressure for the relief of pain but prior to this there was no system regarding its use. He also said ‘“Zone Therapy” must be classed with the best and most original procedure in medicine today.’ Further, he quoted Dr Fitzgerald’s statement that, ‘Zone therapy is not a cure-all, but it is a valuable adjunct in therapy.’

It was during this time that William Fitzgerald lectured to Dr Joe Shelby-Riley and his wife Elizabeth Ann Riley. They had a school of chiropractic in Washington DC. Fitzgerald found that naturopaths, chiropractors and osteopaths were willing converts as they were interested in any drugless therapy. Dr Shelby-Riley became more than just interested in zone therapy during his lifetime; he also wrote 12 books, his first Zone Therapy Simplified (written in 1919) was mentioned in his later work Science and Practice of Chiropractic with Allied Sciences (1925). A later book was just entitled Zone Reflex; the 12th edition was copyrighted in 1942. By then the Rileys had elaborated and greatly broadened their instructions and introduced a technique called hook-work in which the fingers are hooked under bones (e.g. the scapula) in connection with zone therapy. Elizabeth Ann Riley was a remarkable teacher of zone therapy.

In 1919 a young man named Harry Bond Bressler graduated from the Shelby-Rileys’ chiropractic school, receiving a Degree of Chiropractic, and joined Dr Shelby-Riley in his practice in 1920. He wrote a book in 1955, confirming everything that had previously been written by Fitzgerald. Bressler considered that Fitzgerald had become acquainted with the art of pressure therapy in Vienna, which was very possible because many doctors and naturopaths visited the continent for seminars and meetings. Note that both in this book and in subsequent books written, some anomalies regarding reflexology points arose. Bressler made an issue of the terminology to be used when referring to the digits, because he felt that some people were confused. He called the first phalanx or finger joint the proximal phalanx (nearest the palm), the next was the middle or second phalanx, and the one nearest the end of the finger was the distal or third phalanx (with exception of the thumb and great toe, which have only two phalanges, a proximal and a distal). He clearly stated that the eyes related to the tips of the index finger and second toe, being the third or end joint (he said to try the third or middle digits). For the ears he said he used the fourth finger, the ring finger (note that the ring finger is actually the third finger); the third finger in TCM contains the Triple Burner meridian and is always used for ear problems. Fitzgerald had specified raising the nail on the third finger for tinnitus of the ear; however, Bressler wrote that he had confirmed Fitzgerald’s work of raising the lateral edge of the nail of the fourth finger for ear noises for 2–5 minutes, three or four times each day. Harry Bond Bressler also linked ear problems to the liver; I think this was because the Gall Bladder channel commences on the face and contours the ear to terminate in the fourth toe. The toe terminal point is also used for ear problems, as because many of the disorders linked to the Gall Bladder meridian are often high congested states the liver would definitely also be out of balance. In his chapter on ears he also included ear massage, but his points do not relate to the known acupoints.

Reading through Fitzgerald’s book you are made aware that, even though he worked on the actual organ involved, often he was also looking for other organs that might be contributing to the condition. That is, he was looking for ‘areas of assistance’ or associated areas, one of the basic concepts of reflexology today. For instance, not only did he refer to ingrowing toenails contributing to headaches but he stated that this would affect the entire zone and could be the contributing factor for a discordant condition expressed in a distant organ within that area. Undue pressures would cause a problem within any part of that zone.

Bressler’s one main deviation appeared in his depiction of the zones. Fitzgerald’s early work had always depicted the zones as ten lines of energy, five each side of the medial line, and his diagrams clearly show this (see figure 1.10). The five lines are quite clearly marked out, and each line represents the centre of that respective zone. Fitzgerald clearly stated that he designed these figures in this way to avoid confusion. However, Harry Bond Bressler states that the zones commence in the web of the first phalange; this results in only four lines either side of the median line, which is not as Fitzgerald’s original concept. It is important to be aware of this alteration.

Eunice Ingham, another author, was also a student of the Riley chiropractic school. In her book she stated that Dr Fitzgerald, in his work Zone Therapy, blazed the path for further developments, as he ‘brings to light for our consideration his discovery of the ten various zones of the body and location of each organ in the body in one or more of these zones’. If the feet and the hands are supposed to represent the physical body with all organs laid out in a similar arrangement, every book or chart should be the same, with variations only being in the format. However, in Ingham’s books the eye and ear reflexes are clearly depicted at the base of toes two, three and four and this arrangement has been followed in many later books. Was this due to the fact that the acupoint just before the terminal point on the Stomach meridian (see figure 5.41) is at the metatarsal phalange at the base of the second toe, a point that is used for all facial problems? Similarly, on the fourth toe the last but one point on the Gall Bladder meridian (GB-43) is for all ear and eye problems (see figure 5.41). Ingham also shows the Heart area covering the same area as that of the Lungs, and suggests working on the shoulder reflex under the fourth and fifth toes, which correspond to the fourth and fifth zones. In TCM the Heart meridian is on the fifth finger, so we should be able to access the heart through the zone. Ingham states ‘take any of the internal organs of the body and determine what zone line passes through them’. This system will guide you in reflexology as we know it today. Ingham stated that the zone concept had become a powerful and important tool in the relief of many disorders and that zone therapy had the ability to stimulate the body’s own natural healing process and allow it to balance its own natural energies. A balanced energy flow should have no blockages.

Doreen E Bayly was trained by Eunice Ingham in America and was responsible for bringing the therapy to Great Britain in 1966. Her book Healing through the Feet was published in 1978.

In the 1960s a young Yorkshire man named Joseph Corvo was taught the zone principle by one of Dr William Fitzgerald’s believers. Today he practises and teaches zone therapy, but does not link it with reflexology. He claimed the system is as old as the human race, that it is a natural instinct to put your hand on a painful part and press it, and that it not only relieves the effect but also removes the cause. He also maintained that you could not harm yourself in any way using the ‘zonery system’ and that it was absolutely safe. To date Joseph Corvo must be listed amongst the great masters for the vast amount of treatment that he has given to help so many and the many books that he has also written.

Regardless of what name we call this therapy by – the zonary system, zone therapy, reflex zones of the feet and hands, or just simply reflexology – there is no doubt it is an ever-expanding activity. As more details are discussed, explanations sought and more research is undertaken our knowledge will expand greatly. If William Fitzgerald was known as the ‘grandfather’ of the zone theory then Eunice Ingham is known as the ‘mother’ of contemporary reflexology. Regardless of how these forward-thinking people developed their theories, even if we do not exactly agree with them let us explore them all. Daily new theories and techniques are being developed worldwide but many of Fitzgerald’s and Ingham’s basic methods and procedures are still taught today.

Through the years we have also had many great naturopaths who believed in the wonderful art of natural self-healing for treating illness; their methods included changing the food that people eat and utilizing the forces of nature such as fresh clean air, light, heat, cold and water (which has been used therapeutically for thousands of years). These drugless methods also incorporated physical exercises and massage.

Important events in the development of reflexology

This calendar in Box 1.1 outlines some important medical events from ancient history to the present day, showing how it may appertain to the whole theory of reflexology, and how the West and the East have something in common with this incredible therapy.

Box 1.1 Important Events in the Development of Reflexology

C2500 BC China – Beginnings of acupuncture in China

C2330 BC Egypt – Tomb of Ankhmahor built depicting representations of surgical operations, or treatment of hands and feet

C1558 BC China – Acupuncture in China became more refined

C500 BC Japan – Acupuncture reached Japan

AD 420 China – A bronze statue was cast showing the location of all the points of acupuncture

1582 Europe – First book of zone therapy published by Doctors Adamus and A’tatis

1776 Per Henrick Ling was noted for his gymnastics; lingism, as it was later known, was the treatment of disease with both active and passive moves

1800s Britain – Treatment by acupuncture was introduced into Britain and the term ‘reflex’ used by many medical men

Early 1800s Japan – Reiki, an ancient energy healing system based on very old Tibetan texts, arose from the teachings of Dr Mikao Usui; its theory was that the universal life energy was channelled through to the practitioner, who in turn conveyed it through the fingertips to those who needed it

1823 Britain – First issue of the Lancet was printed. A case of acupuncture treatment was reported. Successful treatment was carried out by a Dr Tweedale of Lyme Regis

1827 Britain – Acupuncture was used in the Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh and St Thomas’s Hospital, London

Early 1800s Italy – Filippo Pacini (1812–83), an anatomist, discovered Pacinian corpuscles: sensory receptors in the skin particularly sensitive to changes of pressure, also found in joints and tendons. Angelo Ruffini (1864–1929), an anatomist, discovered Ruffini corpuscles, which record dermal distortions; they are cylindrical sensory organs that respond to pressure and warmth, found in finger pads, joints, tendons and tendon sheaths

Early 1800s Germany – Johannes Peter Müller (1801–58), a physiologist, proposed the principle of the law of specific irritability, the principle that each nerve is excited via sense organs responsive to a specific form of energy, and its excitation, because of its connections, can give rise to only one modality of sensation, regardless of whether the nerve is electrically or mechanically excited. Karl Ludwig Merkel (1812–76), an anatomist, discovered Merkel’s discs, tactile end-organs; these are slow-acting mechanoreceptors, responding when the tissue is stretched. George Meissner (1829–1905), a histologist, discovered Meissner’s plexus, a fine network of nerves in the wall of the alimentary canal, also Meissner’s corpuscles, found in the fingertips and lips

1880 Europe – Acupuncture was used in Europe. The connection could be the French Consul in China, Soulie de Morant, who became closely associated with Chinese philosophy. He studied the Chinese language and many ancient treatises on the subject. Many of them were thousands of years old and he translated them into French

Late 1800s Europe – From the latter part of the 1800s great strides were made by the medical profession in the study of reflexes. Many devices were used to deliver electrical stimuli to parts of the body. These were to establish the identity of nerves, such as whether they were sensory or motor. They also established, by the response raised, if a nerve or tract was damaged or absent. As these responsive actions indicate externally what is taking place within the body, it is my belief that we can send a message in on the same pathway

Late 1800s Germany – Mendel-Bekhterev reflex abnormal response was found showing dysfunction in the corticospinal tract; Kurt Mendel (1874–1946) was a neurologist. Hermann Oppenheim (1858–1936), a neurologist, found that when pressure is applied on the tibial crest there is a fanning of all the toes and an extension of the great toe. This is indicative of lesions within the pyramidal tract

Late 1800s USA – Charles Gilbert Chaddock (1861–1936), a neurologist, found that reflex extension of the great toe was induced by percussion on the external malleolar region and this was indicative of pyramidal tract lesion. Alfred Gordon (1874–1953), a neurologist, found the knee jerk reflex and extensor plantar response evident in pyramidal tract disease; this was produced when squeezing the calf muscles

1886 Russia – Vladimir Michailovich Bekhterev (1857–1927) led historical development in experimental methods of reflexology on animals and then the study of human behaviour

1886–7 Russia – Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936), a physiologist, studied conditioned reflex activity in dogs and received the Nobel Prize in 1904 by proving that there was a direct association between a stimulus and a response reflex action (see chapter 2)

Late 1800s Russia – Lyudvig Martinovitch Puussepp (1875–1942), a neurosurgeon, discovered that there is a slow abduction of the little toe in response to stroking the outer aspect of the foot, which is indicative of upper motor neuron disease. These abnormal reflexes are not present in healthy individuals

1892 France – Dr Joseph François Felix Babinski (1857–1932), a neurologist, ascertained the plantar reflex (see chapter 2, page 46)

1893 England – Sir Henry Head (1861–1940), a neurologist, published research proving a direct relationship between pressure applied to the skin and its effect on internal organs. This was later clarified to be the effects of dermatomes (see chapter 2, page 43)

1895 United States – Dr William Fitzgerald (1872–1942) qualified at the University of Vermont, and was the originator of the theory of zone therapy (died 21 October 1942 in Stamford, Connecticut)

1897 Egypt – Tomb of Ankhmahor at Saqqara discovered by V Loret depicting treatment of feet, hands and legs

1902 Vienna – Fitzgerald studied and taught in Vienna

1906 England – Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (1859–1952), an Oxford physiologist, proved that the whole nervous system responded to stimuli from proprioceptors, specialized sensory nerve endings that monitored internal changes in the body. He published his findings in The Integrative Action of the Nervous System

1907 Russia – Bekhterev formed the Psychoneurological Institute, and later became the Director of the State Reflexological Institute for the study of the brain in Leningrad

1913–20 Washington – Fitzgerald went to Washington to teach and lecture to Shelby-Riley students

1915 United States – Edwin Bowers article published ‘To stop that toothache squeeze your toe’

1917 United States – Edwin Bowers MD and William Fitzgerald MD published Zone Therapy. Many other books were published during this period

1919 United States – Dr Joe Shelby-Riley published first of 12 books about zone therapy, the last being published in 1942

1928 Russia – Bekhterev had his work translated into English

1938 United States – Eunice Ingham (24 February 1889–10 December 1974) published Stories the Feet Can Tell

1945 United States – Eunice Ingham published Stories the Feet Have Told

1949 United States – Dr Roy S Ashton published The Fundamental System Bad Feet-Bad Spine showing the connection between foot abnormalities and the spine

1955 United States – Harry Bond Bressler published his book Zone Therapy confirming all of Dr William Fitzgerald’s work

1966 England – Doreen Bayly returned from America after training with Eunice Ingham and introduced reflexology to Britain; she published her first foot chart in black and white in 1966 entitled ‘The Eunice Ingham method chart produced by Doreen Bayly’

1974 Germany – Hanne Marquardt studied with Ingham in 1970; then she published Reflex Zone Therapy of the Feet

1978 England – Reflexology Today. The Stimulation of The Body’s Healing Forces Through Foot Massage was published by Doreen Bayly. Her earlier chart was reproduced in colour in 1970

1978 Taiwan – Father Joseph Eugster began his dedicated work, teaching reflexology

1980s England – Complementary medicine and reflexology specifically became a growth area; by this time over 80 books had now been written, and many articles, some with conflicting points but many stating a similar theme. Societies and associations were formed from 1983 onwards around the world. Schools were set up with many offering short training programmes leading to a certificate to practise

1990s England – Directories were set up but are not conclusive, as many people do not choose to advertise this way. The Institute for Complementary Medicine formed a British Register of Complementary Practitioners (BRCP). The British Council of Complementary Medicine is a registered charity, which was formed to establish national standards in all developing areas of complementary medicine. It works in tandem with the BRCP. The British Complementary Medicine Association (BCMA) was formed in 1992 to assist therapists in the setting of standards of practice and to encourage them to join together in self-regulatory bodies. The BCMA is a leading member of the Independent Care Organisations (ICO) – the body charged with setting standards in private health care.

Research programmes are being initiated. The years ahead look promising.

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