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First published in 2006

Text © 2006 Paul Sterry

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Colour reproduction by Nature Photographers Ltd.

Paul Sterry asserts his moral right to be identified as the author of this work

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Source ISBN: 9780007236848

Ebook Edition © MARCH 2015 ISBN: 9780008144586

Version: 2016-12-05

CONTENTS

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Introduction

How to Use this Book

Basic Botany

Glossary

Flowers

Wild Flower Identification

Fruits and Seeds

Leaves

Habitats

Conservation

Species Descriptions

Juniper to Nettle Families

Nettle, Birthwort and Knotweed Families

Knotweed Family Polygonaceae

Blinks to Goosefoot Families

Goosefoot Family Chenopodiaceae

Goosefoot and Pink Families

Pink Family Caryophyllaceae

Buttercup Family Ranunculaceae

Fumitory and Poppy Families

Poppy, Barberry and Cabbage Families

Cabbage Family Brassicaceae

Cabbage and Mignonette Families

Sundew, Pitcherplant and Stonecrop Families

Stonecrop and Saxifrage Families

Saxifrage Family Saxifrageaceae

Gooseberry and Rose Families

Rose Family Rosaceae

Pea Family Fabaceae

Pea and Wood-sorrel Families

Crane’s-bill Family Geraniaceae

Crane’s-bill and Flax Families

Spurge Family Euphorbiaceae

Spurge, Milkwort and Balsam Families

Holly, Spindle, Buckthorn, Box and Mallow Families

Mallow to St John’s-wort Families

St John’s-wort and Rock-rose Families

Violet Family Violaceae

Violet to Willowherb Families

Waterwort and Willowherb Families

Willowherb and Dogwood Families

Ivy and Carrot Families

Carrot Family Apiaceae

Primrose Family Primulaceae

Heather Family Ericaceae

Heather and Crowberry Families

Wintergreen, Bird’s-nest and Thrift Families

Ash and Gentian Families

Gentian, Bogbean, Periwinkle and Bedstraw Families

Bedstraw Family Rubiaceae

Bedstraw, Jacob’s-ladder and Dodder Families

Bindweed and Borage Families

Borage Family Boraginaceae

Vervain and Dead-nettle Families

Dead-nettle Family Lamiaceae

Dead-nettle and Butterfly-bush Families

Nightshade and Figwort Families

Figwort Family Scrophulariaceae

Figwort and Broomrape Families

Broomrape, Moschatel and Valerian Families

Valerian and Butterwort Families

Plantain and Arrowgrass Families

Honeysuckle and Teasel Families

Teasel and Bellflower Families

Bellflower Family Campanulaceae

Daisy Family Asteraceae

Iris, Black Bryony and Lords-and-ladies Families

Orchid Family Orchidaceae

Water Plants

Pondweeds Potamogetonaceae

Bur-reed, Bulrush and Rush Families

Rush and Sedge Families

Sedge Family Cyperaceae

Sedge and Grass Families

Grass Family Poaceae

The West Country

The Lizard

The Isles of Scilly

Channel Islands

The New Forest and Isle of Wight

South-East England’S Estuaries and Coasts

The South and North Downs

East Anglia

The Chilterns and Cotswolds

English and Welsh Uplands

Scottish Highlands and Western Isles

Shetland and Orkney Isles

Ireland

Further Reading and Useful Organisations

Index

About the Publisher

INTRODUCTION

PEOPLE LIVING IN BRITAIN and Ireland seldom have to travel far to find a wealth of wild flowers and, although the region’sv plantlife faces significant conservation issues, residents should feel privileged to live in such a flower-rich part of the world. Underpinning our floral diversity is a rich array of habitats, the product of our region’s topography, geology and history of land use. Good fortune, in the form of the Gulf Stream, dictates a mild and comparatively equable climate for much of the time, and this, too, contributes to botanical diversity. Complete British Wild Flowers has arisen from my personal love for the flora of Britain and Ireland, not to mention half a lifetime devoted to photographing our wild flowers.

THE REGION COVERED BY THIS BOOK

The region covered by this book comprises the whole of mainland England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland, as well as offshore islands including the Shetlands, Orkneys, Hebrides, Isle of Man and the Isles of Scilly. In addition, I have included the Channel Islands because their proximity to, and ecological affinities with, northern France allow them to make a valuable contribution to our flora.

THE CHOICE OF SPECIES

The coverage of the book is restricted mainly to what most people understand to be wild flowers – not a strict botanical term, but taken to mean flowering plants of relatively modest stature, species that in most cases do not exceed 2m in height. For the sake of completeness I have also included a number of woody flowering shrubs, but I have excluded obvious tree species. Terrestrial habitats harbour the lion’s share of our flowering plants and this is reflected in the coverage of this book. But I have also included species that are strictly aquatic, both those that occur in freshwater habitats and the limited range of flowering plants that grow in coastal marine environments.

Complete British Wild Flowers is aimed primarily at the botanical novice and those with a moderate degree of botanical experience. Consequently, for the main section of the book, I have selected species that the naturalist stands a reasonable chance of encountering, although a few scarce but spectacular and distinctive species have also been included here for good measure. Some botanical groups are minefields for the beginner: for example, hundreds of so-called ‘microspecies’ of brambles are recognised by experts and similar complexity is found among dandelions, hawkweeds and eyebrights to name three more. In a book of this size, accurate identification of these subdivisions is impossible to achieve. So rather than baffle the reader, I have chosen to ‘lump’ the subdivisions together within these complex groups and treat them as species aggregates.

In the hope and expectation that readers’ appetites for botanical discoveries are whetted by the book, the last section of Complete British Wild Flowers is devoted to botanical hotspots, areas that merit a visit in search of the localised floral treasures they harbour.

Floral delights such as this heathland have inspired generations of botanists.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

THE BOOK HAS BEEN designed so that the text and photographs for each species are on facing pages. A system of labelling clearly states the flower’s identity. The text has been written to complement the information conveyed by the photographs. By and large, the order in which the species appear in the main section of the book roughly follows standard botanical classification. However, because parts of the field are in a state of flux, the order may differ slightly from that found in other guides, past, present or future.

SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS

At the start of each species description the plant’s most commonly used and current English name is given. This is followed by the scientific name, comprising the genus name first and then by the specific name. In a few instances, where this is pertinent, reference is made, in either the species heading or the main body of the text, to a further subdivision: subspecies. In general, I have followed the nomenclature of Clive Stace’s New Flora of the British Isles (see p.). However, with orchids I have used the most up-to-date classification system, which differs from that in most currently available floras. The family group to which the plant in question belongs is then given. If a species is anything other than widespread and common, there then follows a measure of its scarcity, indicated by rosette symbols:

| Scarce overall, but locally common
| Scarce, local and seldom common
| Local and rare

These scarcity ratings are based on my own observations, so they are subjective and are not intended as an absolute guide to a species’ status. Lastly in the heading, some measure is given of the plant’s size. Size and stature vary according to a number of factors so these values should be treated with a degree of caution.

The text has been written in as concise a manner as possible. Each description begins with a summary of the plant and the habitat that it favours. To avoid potential ambiguities, the following headings break up the rest of each description: FLOWERS; FRUITS; LEAVES; STATUS. These sections describe the colour, shape and size of the various plant parts – features that tend to be more constant, and hence more useful for identification, than the overall size of the plant. Text in italics relates to key features of identification.

MAPS

The maps provide invaluable information about the distribution and occurrence of each species in the region: the intensity of the colour gives an indication of abundance. In compiling the maps, I have made reference to a number of sources, including An Atlas of the Wild Flowers of Britain and Northern Europe, the New Atlas of the British and Irish Flora (see p.), various county floras and, of course, my own notes. The maps represent the current ranges of plants in the region in general terms. Please bear in mind that, given the size of the maps, small and isolated populations will not necessarily be featured. Note also that the ranges of many species (particularly those influenced by agriculture) are likely to contract further as the years go by.

PHOTOGRAPHS

Great care has gone into the selection of photographs for this book and in many cases the images have been taken specifically for this project. Preference has been given to photographs that serve both to illustrate key identification features of a species when in flower, and to emphasise its beauty. In many instances, smaller inset photographs illustrate useful identification features that are not shown clearly by the main image.

BASIC BOTANY

IN COMMON WITH OTHER living organisms, plants have the abilities to grow, reproduce themselves, respond to stimuli and – to a limited extent compared to most animals – move. What sets them apart from animals in particular, and defines plants as a group, is their ability, in almost all species, to manufacture their own food from inorganic building blocks. Fundamental to this ability is the process called photosynthesis, in which plants use energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide from the air and water into glucose. Oxygen is a by-product of this reaction. A pigment called chlorophyll is the agent that extracts from sunlight the energy needed to fuel the reaction; its coloration is what makes plants green.

The plants covered in this book are the most advanced of their kind in evolutionary terms. All have the ability to reproduce sexually and flowers are the means by which this process is achieved. Flower structure is as varied as it is complex, and the fact that whole books, including this one, can be devoted to detailing its diversity is testament to this. Flower structure is dealt with in more detail on page 10.

Among terrestrial plants the process of photosynthesis is difficult to demonstrate outside the laboratory. However, certain submerged aquatic plants, such as this Water Starwort, produce bubbles of oxygen when they are exposed to bright sunlight, indicating that photosynthesis is indeed taking place.

THE ROLE OF PLANTS IN ECOLOGY

The importance of plants in the global ecosystem, and at the local level, cannot be overstated. Not only do plants generate (through photosynthesis) the atmospheric oxygen that all animals need to breathe but, as a source of food, they underpin food chains across the world. Without plants, life on earth as we know it would not have evolved and could not survive.

The survival of plants and animals is inextricably linked at the general level, but there are plenty of highly specific instances of dependence, the relationship often hinted at by their English names. Without their namesake-specific foodplants, neither the Figwort Weevil (left) nor the Mullein Moth (right), shown here as a caterpillar, could survive.

GLOSSARY

Achene – one-seeded dry fruit that does not split.

Acute – sharply pointed.

Alien – introduced by man from another part of the world.

Alternate – not opposite.

Annual – plant that completes its life cycle within 12 months.

Anther – pollen-bearing tip of the stamen.

Appressed (sometimes written as adpressed in other books) – pressed closely to the relevant part of the plant.

Auricle – pair of lobes at the base of a leaf.

Awn – stiff, bristle-like projection, seen mainly in grass flowers.

Axil – angle between the upper surface or stalk of a leaf and the stem on which it is carried.

Basal – appearing at the base of plant, at ground level.

Basic – soil that is rich in alkaline (mainly calcium) salts.

Beak – elongate projection at the tip of a fruit.

Berry – fleshy, soft-coated fruit containing several seeds.

Biennial – plant that takes two years to complete its life cycle.

Bog – wetland on acid soil.

Bract – modified, often scale-like, leaf found at the base of flower stalks in some species.

Bracteole – modified, often scale-like, leaf found at the base of individual flowers in some species.

Bulb – swollen underground structure containing the origins of the following year’s leaves and buds.

Bulbil – small, bulb-like structure, produced asexually by some plants and capable of growing into a new plant.

Calcareous – containing calcium, the source typically being chalk or limestone.

Calyx – outer part of a flower, comprising the sepals.

Capsule – dry fruit that splits to liberate its seeds.

Catkin – hanging spike of tiny flowers.

Chlorophyll – green pigment, present in plant leaves and other structures, and essential in the process of photosynthesis.

Cladode – green, leaf-like shoot.

Clasping – referring to leaf bases that have backward-pointing lobes that wrap around the stem.

Composite – member of the daisy family (Asteraceae).

Compound – leaf that is divided into a number of leaflets.

Cordate – heart-shaped at the base.

Corm – swollen underground stem.

Corolla – collective term for the petals.

Cultivar – plant variety created by cultivation.

Deciduous – plant whose leaves fall in autumn.

Decurrent – with the leaf base running down the stem.

Dentate – toothed.

Digitate – resembling the fingers of a splayed hand.

Dioecious – having male and female flowers on separate plants.

Disc floret – one of the inner florets of a composite flower.

Drupe – succulent fruit, the seed inside having a hard coat.

Emergent – a plant growing with its base and roots in water, the rest of the plant emerging above water level.

Entire – in the context of a leaf, a margin that is untoothed.

Epicalyx – calyx-like structure, usually surrounding, and appressed, to the calyx.

Epiphyte – plant that grows on another plant, on which it is not a parasite.

Fen – wetland habitat on alkaline peat.

Filament – stalk part of a stamen.

Flexuous – wavy.

Floret – small flower, part of larger floral arrangement as in composite flowers or umbellifers.

Fruits – seeds of a plant and their associated structures.

Genus (plural Genera) – group of closely related species, sharing the same genus name.

Glabrous – lacking hairs.

Gland – sticky structure at the end of a hair.

Glaucous – blue-grey in colour.

Globose – spherical or globular.

Glume – pair of chaff-like scales at the base of a grass spikelet.

Hybrid – plant derived from the crossfertilisation of two different species.

Inflorescence – the flowering structure in its entirety, including bracts.

Introduced – not native to the region.

Keel – seen in pea family members; the fused two lower petals that are shaped like a boat’s keel.

Lanceolate – narrow and lance-shaped.

Latex – milky fluid.

Lax – open, not dense.

Leaflet – leaf-like segment or lobe of a leaf.

Ligule – somewhat membranous flap at the base of a grass leaf, where it joins the stem.

Linear – slender and parallel-sided.

Lip – usually the lower part of an irregular flower such as an orchid.

Lobe – division of a leaf.

Microspecies – division within a species, members of which are only subtly different from members of other microspecies.

Midrib – central vein of a leaf.

Native – occurring naturally in the region and not known to have been introduced.

Node – point on the stem where a leaf arises.

Nut – a dry, one-seeded fruit with a hard outer case.

Nutlet – small nut.

Oblong – leaf whose sides are at least partly parallel-sided.

Obtuse – blunt-tipped (usually in the context of a leaf).

Opposite – (usually leaves) arising in opposite pairs on the stem.

Opposite

Oval – leaf shape. Ovate is oval in outline.

Ovary – structure containing the ovules, or immature seeds.

Ovoid – egg-shaped.

Palmate – leaf with finger-like lobes arising from the same point.

Panicle – branched inflorescence.

Pappus – tuft of hairs on a fruit.

Parasite – plant that derives its nutrition entirely from another living organism.

Pedicel – stalk of an individual flower.

Perennial – plant that lives for more than two years.

Perfoliate – surrounding the stem.

Perianth – collective name for a flower’s petals and sepals.

Petals – inner segments of a flower, often colourful.

Petiole – leaf stalk.

Pinnate – leaf division with opposite pairs of leaflets and a terminal one.

Pod – elongated fruit, often almost cylindrical, seen in pea family members.

Pollen – tiny grains that contain male sex cells, produced by a flower’s anthers.

Procumbent – lying on the ground.

Prostrate – growing in a manner pressed tightly to the ground.

Pubescent – with soft, downy hairs.

Ray – one of the stalks of an umbel.

Ray floret – one of the outer florets of a composite flower.

Receptacle – swollen upper part of a stem to which the flower is attached.

Recurved – curving backwards or downwards.

Reflexed – bent back at an angle of more than 90 degrees.

Rhizome – underground, or ground-level, stem.

Rosette – clustered, radiating arrangement of leaves at ground level.

Saprophyte – plant that lacks chlorophyll and which derives its nutrition from decaying matter.

Sepal – one of the outer, usually less colourful, segments of a flower.

Sessile – lacking a stalk.

Shrub – branched, woody plant.

Spadix – spike of florets as seen in members of the genus Arum.

Spathe – large, leafy bract surrounding the flower spike as seen in members of the genus Arum.

Species – division within classification that embraces organisms that closely resemble one another and that can interbreed to produce a viable subsequent generation.

Spreading – branching horizontally (in the case of a whole plant) or sticking out at right angles (in the case of hairs).

Stamen – male part of the flower, comprising the anther and filament.

Stigma – receptive surface of the female part of a flower, to which pollen adheres.

Stipule – usually a pair of leaf-like appendages at the base of a leaf.

Stolon – creeping stem.

Style – element of the female part of the flower, sitting on the ovary and supporting the stigma.

Subspecies – members of a species that possess significant morphological differences from other groups within the species as a whole; in natural situations, different subspecies are often separated geographically.

Succulent – swollen and fleshy.

Tendril – slender, twining growth used by some plants to aid climbing.

Tepals – both sepals and petals, when the two are indistinguishable.

Thallus – the body of a plant in species where separate structures cannot be distinguished readily.

Tomentose – covered in cottony hairs.

Trifoliate (or trefoil) – leaf with three separate lobes.

Truncate – ending abruptly and squared-off.

Tuber – swollen, usually underground, part of the stem or root.

Tubercle – small swelling.

Umbel – complex, umbrella-shaped inflorescence.

Whorl – several leaves or branches arising from the same point on a stem.

FLOWERS

ATTRACTIVE THOUGH MANY OF them may be, flowers are not produced to delight the human eye. Their role is strictly functional – they are the plant’s sex organs, there to produce sex cells and ensure the maximum chance of successful fertilisation taking place.

BASIC FLOWER STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

In a few species, male and female sex cells are borne in separate flowers, or even on different plants, but in most cases they appear together within the same flower. Male sex cells are contained within pollen, tiny grains that are produced by structures called anthers and borne on slender stems referred to as filaments; collectively, anthers and filaments are referred to as stamens. The female part of most flowers comprises the ovary, containing the female sex cells, above which is borne the stigma (which receives the pollen) carried on a stem called the style.

Some plants, such as grasses and catkin-bearing shrubs, employ the wind to carry their pollen to others of the same species. Vast quantities of pollen are required to achieve a successful outcome with such a random process. Most other species adopt a more targeted approach and use the services of animals – insects in almost all cases – to transfer pollen. In exchange for a meal, in the form of nectar, insects inadvertently carry pollen on their bodies to the next flowers they visit; with any luck, a neighbouring plant of the same species will be visited while pollen still persists. In almost all species, flower structure has evolved to avoid self-pollination and to maximise the chances of cross-pollination – pollen being transferred to visiting insect pollinators and received from other plants by the same agents.

Bumblebees, and bees generally, are the classic insect pollinators. They visit flowers in search of nectar and unwittingly acquire a dusting of pollen, which is slightly sticky, on their hairy bodies; this is then carried to subsequent flowers they visit.

Cross-section through a typical flower, in this case a crane’s-bill.

Close-up of a stamen.

Close-up of the stigma, style and ovary.

WILD FLOWER IDENTIFICATION

SEASONED AND EXPERIENCED BOTANISTS are likely to approach the subject of identification by using definitive botanical works (floras) that rely on detailed keys, a thorough understanding of botanical terms, and a willingness to use descriptions rather than pictures to separate species. While this approach has scientific validity, in my experience it is not the way that the average floral enthusiast approaches the problem. Most tend to leaf through illustrated books to find suitable candidate species and then narrow down the field by scrutinising any closely related alternatives. This approach can succeed in most instances, especially if close care is paid to the detailed structure of the plant – leaves and fruits, as well as flowers – in addition to other factors such as flowering time, habitat preferences and distribution. I anticipate that this is how Complete British Wild Flowers will be used, initially at least, by most readers, although it will not take long for even the most inexperienced person to be able to detect similarities among plant family members, hence narrowing down the options at a stroke. Nevertheless, for absolute beginners, I felt it would be useful to provide a few pointers to lead in the right direction. I have concentrated on flower families where, in most species, there are sufficient similarities to justify generalisations. Strikingly unusual flowers, and species without large family ties, are not included in the following series of short cuts. I have used flower structure, such as the number of petals, as an initial guide. Note, however, that within several of the families identified, one or more rogue species may defy the family character and will not fall into the appropriate category. For example, although Tormentil is a member of the rose family (characterised by flowers with five petals), its flowers have just four petals.

SHORT CUTS TO FLOWER IDENTITY
3-PETALLED FLOWERS

WATER-PLANTAINS – equal-sized petals; white or pinkish petals; aquatic or marginal plants; see pp.

ORCHIDS – flowers comprising 3 petals plus 3 sepals, the latter often petal-like in colour and shape; the lower petal often takes the form of an enlarged or elaborate lip; see pp.

4-PETALLED FLOWERS

CABBAGE FAMILY MEMBERS – relatively small flowers; equal-sized petals; flowers often in groups; white, yellow or pinkish depending on species; see pp.

BEDSTRAWS – tiny flowers; equal-sized petals; flowers often in frothy heads; white or yellow depending on species; see pp.

SPEEDWELLS – relatively small flowers; unequal-sized petals; blue, purplish or white depending on species; see pp.

WILLOWHERBS – relatively small flowers in most species; equal-sized petals; flowers in open heads; pinkish, red or white depending on species; see pp.

POPPIES AND ALLIES – relatively large and crinkly, equal-sized petals; flowers usually solitary; red or yellow depending on species; see pp.

5-PETALLED FLOWERS

WATER-CROWFOOTS – equal-sized petals; flowers usually solitary; white petals; aquatic; see pp.

SUNDEWS – tiny flowers with equal petals; in spikes but usually only one flower opens at a time; bog plants with sticky, red leaves; white petals; see pp.

BUTTERCUPS – equal-sized, often shiny petals; flowers usually solitary; yellow; see pp.

ROCK-ROSES – equal-sized, crinkly petals; flowers usually solitary; yellow or white depending on species; see pp.

ST JOHN’S-WORTS – equal-sized petals; flowers in open heads in most species; yellow but marked with small black dots or streaks in some species; see pp.

ROSES AND ALLIES – equal-sized petals; flowers solitary or in open heads depending on species; white, pink or yellow depending on species; see pp.

SAXIFRAGES – equal-sized petals; flowers solitary or in open heads depending on species; white, pinkish or yellow depending on species; see pp.

MULLEINS – equal-sized or slightly unequal petals; flowers often in tall spikes; yellow or white depending on species; see pp.

LOOSESTRIFES AND PIMPERNELS – petals fused but 5 distinct and equal lobes present; yellow, red, purple or pink depending on species; see pp.

PRIMROSE – petals fused but 5 distinct and equal lobes present; yellow or pink depending on species; see pp.

MALLOWS – equal-sized petals; flowers solitary or in open heads; pink; see pp.

CENTAURIES – corolla fused but with 5 petal-like lobes; in clusters in most species; petals pink or yellow depending on species; see pp.

WOOD SORREL AND ALLIES – equalsized petals; yellow, pinkish or white depending on species; trifoliate leaves; see pp.

PINKS, CHICKWEEDS AND STITCHWORTS – equal-sized petals, often deeply divided; flowers usually solitary; white or pink depending on species; see pp.

PEA FAMILY MEMBERS – unequal petals arranged in a characteristic manner comprising a standard, a keel and wings; yellow, pinkish, purple or white depending on species; see pp.

CRANE’S-BILLS – equal-sized petals; flowers solitary or in open heads depending on species; pinkish, bluish or purple depending on species; see pp.

FLAXES – equal-sized petals; flowers usually solitary; bluish or white depending on species; see pp.

SEA-LAVENDERS – flowers funnelshaped; petals fused at the base; restricted to coastal habitats; bluish-lilac petals; see pp.

VIOLETS – unequal petals; spur present; blue, violet or white depending on species; see pp.

FORGET-ME-NOTS – petals fused but 5 petal-like lobes present; in open heads in most species; blue, pinkish or white depending on species; see pp.

TRUMPET-SHAPED FLOWERS

GENTIANS – trumpet relatively narrow; petals fused but with 4 or 5 pointed or rounded lobes; bluish, purple or pinkish depending on species; see pp.

BINDWEEDS – trumpet open and flared; white or pink depending on species; see pp.

BELL-SHAPED FLOWERS

BELLFLOWERS – flowers rather open with 5 lobes; blue or purplish depending on species; see pp.

HEATHERS – flowers typically small, rather tubular and usually pendent; pink or purple depending on species; see pp.

TUBULAR OR FUSED FLOWERS

EYEBRIGHTS – flowers 2-lipped; upper lip hooded, lower lip 3-lobed; white, marked with purple and yellow; see pp.

BORAGE AND ALLIES – 5 lobes present; flowers borne in spikes, curved in some species; yellow, pinkish, purple or white depending on species; see pp.

TOADFLAXES – flowers spurred and 2-lipped; upper lip 2-lobed, lower lip 3-lobed; yellow or purplish depending on species; see pp.

LOUSEWORTS AND COW-WHEATS – flowers 2-lipped; upper lip hooded, lower lip 3-lobed; borne in spike-like heads in most species; pinkish or purple depending on species; see pp.

FUMITORIES – flowers 2-lipped; pinkish or yellow depending on species; see pp.

FIGWORTS – flowers tiny, globular and 2-lipped; upper lip 2-lobed, lower lip 3-lobed; purplish or yellow depending on species; see pp.

LABIATES – flowers 2-lipped; lower lip often lobed, upper lip often hooded and toothed; borne in spikes in most species; whole plant often aromatic; wide range of colours seen in the different species; see pp.

BROOMRAPES – flowers 2-lipped; upper lip hooded, lower lip 3-lobed; flowers the same colour as rest of plant; borne in spikes; see pp.

MANY-FLOWERED HEADS OR FLOWERS IN CLUSTERED HEADS

UMBELLIFERS OR CARROT FAMILY MEMBERS – individual flowers comprising 5 tiny petals; flowers stalked and arranged in umbrella-shaped heads; white or yellow depending on species; see pp.

SCABIOUSES – individual flowers with 4 or 5 petals depending on species; borne in dense, domed heads; outer flowers often larger than inner ones; see pp.

DAISY FAMILY MEMBERS – numerous tiny flowers; arranged in dense heads in most species; inner disc florets appearing very different from outer ray florets in many species; wide range of colours seen in the different species; see pp.

FRUITS AND SEEDS

FRUITS FOLLOW IN THE wake of flowers and are the structures in which a plant’s seeds develop and are protected. In many cases, the shape and structure of these fruits, and often the seeds themselves, are designed to assist their dispersal, when ripe, away from the plant that produced them. A number of ingenious methods have evolved to facilitate this process: some seeds are carried by the wind; others attach themselves to the fur of animals; some even float away on water or have evolved to be eaten and digested by birds. The study of fruits and seeds is not only fascinating in its own right but in many instances the structure or appearance of a fruit can be a valuable aid to correct identification.

The burred fruits of Lesser Burdock readily become snagged in animal fur, travelling with the creature until the fruit finally disintegrates and liberates the seeds.

The hook-tipped spines on the fruit of Wood Avens catch in animal fur. Subsequently, they also help the fruit to disintegrate, as unattached barbs snag on objects and material that the animal rubs against.

The flowers of Common and Grey Field-speedwells are rather similar. Only by looking at the fruits (Common left, Grey right) can you be absolutely certain of any given plant’s identity.

Cabbage family members produce fruits known as pods, which vary considerably in terms of size and shape according to species. Those of Wild Candytuft, seen here, are particularly attractive.

Dandelion seeds are armed with a tuft of hairs – the pappus – that assists wind dispersal. While it remains intact, the collection of seeds and hairs is often referred to as a ‘clock’.

The fruits of Field Gromwell are hard-cased nutlets, designed to be resistant to abrasion and wear, allowing the species to grow as an arable weed, but of course only in the absence of herbicides.

Like other members of the pea family, the fruits of bird’s-foottrefoil are elongated pods.

The seeds of Elder are contained within luscious berries. These are eaten by birds and the seeds (protected by a coating resistant to being digested) are dispersed with the droppings.

The fruits of roses are fleshy and known as hips; inside these are seeds (dry achenes).

The fruit of the Common Poppy is a hollow vessel that contains thousands of minute seeds. When the fruit is ripe, holes below its rim allow seeds to escape when the plant is shaken by the wind.

In strict botanical terms, the fruits of the Raspberry are a collection of small drupes – each one a fleshy fruit that contains a hard-coated seed.

LEAVES

BEING THE MAIN STRUCTURES responsible for photosynthesis, a plant’s leaves are its powerhouse. They vary from species to species and come in a wide range of shapes and sizes. Their appearance is an evolutionary response to the plant’s needs, in particular factors such as the habitat in which it grows, the degree of shading or exposure dictated by its favoured growing location, and rainfall. In most instances, all the leaves on a given plant are likely to be broadly similar to one another, although size tends to decrease up the stem of a plant. However, to complicate matters, basal leaves can be entirely different in appearance from stem leaves. This applies to a number of species, notably some umbellifers.

In essence, leaves are thin and rather delicate structures. However, rigidity is maintained by a network of veins through which pass the ingredients required for photosynthesis, and the products of the process.

The intricate network of veins in a leaf is often best appreciated after autumn leaf-fall in deciduous species. Softer tissue decomposes before the veins themselves disintegrate, leaving striking leaf skeletons.

Leaf shape is not an infallible guide to plant identity, so its importance as an identifying feature is secondary to the appearance of flowers. There are many instances where entirely unrelated plants have superficially very similar leaves and great care must be taken when using leaf shape alone for identification. However, there are also plenty of instances where leaf shape is distinctive and diagnostic, or where it allows the separation of closely related plants that have superficially similar flowers. So it is worth paying attention to the variety of leaf shapes found among British wild flowers, some of which are shown right and overleaf along with the common descriptive name by which their shapes are known. Also shown are a variety of distinctive marginal features.

OVATE

LANCEOLATE

ROUNDED

POINTED-TIPPED

SPOON-SHAPED

LINEAR

ROUNDED-TIPPED

TOOTHED (DENTATE) MARGIN

HEART-SHAPED (CORDATE) BASE

PINNATE

PALMATE

LOBED MARGIN

CLASPING BASE

TRIFOLIATE (OR TREFOIL)

FINELY DIVIDED

HABITATS

WHEREVER CONDITIONS ARE SUITABLE for life then plants are likely to grow. Although some species are rather catholic with regard to where they grow, most are much more specific, influenced by factors such as underlying soil type, whether the soil is waterlogged or free-draining, summer and winter temperature extremes and so on. Consequently, where environmental conditions are broadly similar, the same plant species are likely to be found; where these communities are recognisably distinct they are referred to by specific habitat names. In Britain, many of our most distinct habitats owe their existence to past and present human activity, so they are classed as semi-natural in ecological terms.

DECIDUOUS WOODLAND

Woodlands of deciduous trees are found throughout most of the region. They are (or would be, if allowed to flourish) the dominant natural forest type of all regions except in parts of Scotland where evergreen conifers predominate. As their name suggests, deciduous trees have shed their leaves by winter and grow a new set the following spring. The seasonality seen in deciduous woodland is among the most marked and easily observed of any habitat in the region.

Almost all woodland in the region has been, and still is, influenced in some way by man. This might take the form of simple disturbance by walkers, at one end of the spectrum, or clear-felling at the other. Man’s influence is not always to the detriment of wildlife, however. Sympathetic coppicing of Hazel and Ash, for example, can encourage a profusion of wild flowers. In particularly rich locations, carpets of Bluebells, Wood Anemones and Wood Sorrel form the backdrop for more unusual species such as Early Purple Orchid and Greater Butterfly Orchid, Goldilocks Buttercup and Herb-Paris.

Centuries of woodland coppicing have inadvertently created the perfect environment for Bluebells to thrive. A carpet of these lovely plants is a quintessentially English scene.

CONIFEROUS WOODLAND

Areas of native conifer woodland are restricted to a few relict pockets of Caledonian pine forest in the Highlands of Scotland. Conifers that are seen almost everywhere else in Britain and Ireland have either been planted or have seeded themselves from mature plantations. Our native conifer forests harbour an intriguing selection of plants, such as various wintergreen species, Twinflower and Creeping Lady’s-tresses, but conifer plantations are usually species-poor.

HEDGEROWS AND SCRUB

Once so much a feature of the British countryside, hedgerows have suffered a dramatic decline in recent decades. Many hedgerows have either been grubbed out by farmers keen to expand arable field sizes or, more insidiously, wrecked – both in terms of appearance and in their value to wildlife – by inappropriate cutting regimes.

The extent of scrub in the landscape has also diminished in recent times. Although scrub is difficult to define in strict habitat terms, most people would understand the word to mean a loose assemblage of tangled, medium-sized shrubs and bushes interspersed with patches of spreading plants such as Bramble and areas of grassland. Scrub is frequently despised by landowners – sometimes even by naturalists too – but its value to many species formerly considered so common and widespread as not to merit conservation attention should not be underestimated.

Hedgerows usually comprise the species, and acquire the character, of any woodland edge in the vicinity. Scrub, too, reflects the botanical composition of the surrounding area. However, because scrub is essentially a colonising habitat, and not an established one, the bushes and shrubs that comprise tend to be those that grow the fastest.

GRASSLAND AND FARMLAND

Full of wild flowers and native grass species, a good grassy meadow is a delight to anyone with an eye for colour and an interest in natural history. Unfortunately, prime sites are comparatively few and far between these days, either lost to the plough or ‘improved’ by farmers for grazing, by seeding with fast-growing, non-native grass species and by applying selective herbicides. When this happens, the grassland loses its intrinsic botanical interest and value.

It should not be forgotten that, in Britain and Ireland, grassland is a man-made habitat, the result of woodland clearance for grazing in centuries past. If a site is to be maintained as grassland, continued grazing or cutting is needed to ensure that scrub does not regenerate. In the past, the way in which grassland was managed had the beneficial side-effect – from a naturalists’ perspective – of increasing botanical diversity. Under modern ‘efficient’ farming regimes the reverse is the case.

Although arable fields may fall loosely into the category of grasslands (crop species such as wheat, barley and oats are grasses after all), their botanical interest tends to be minimal in many areas. Modern herbicides ensure that ‘weeds’ are kept to a minimum, and decades of chemical use have resulted in the soil’s seed bank being depleted dramatically. Many of the more delicate arable ‘weed’ species are essentially things of the past, often relegated to a few scraps of marginal land that escape spraying either by luck or, in a few instances, through the foresight of farmers. Arable weeds depend on disturbance, being unable to compete in stable grassland communities. So there is a sad irony to the fact that grant-funded ‘conservation’ schemes that create wildlife ‘headlands’ are often the final nail in the coffin for these scarce species, which become crowded out by the vigorous growth of seeded rank grasses and clovers.

HEATHLAND

Heathlands are essentially restricted to southern England, with the majority of sites concentrated in Surrey, Hampshire and Dorset. However, further isolated examples of heath-land can be found further afield, in south Devon and Suffolk, for example, and in coastal districts of Cornwall and Pembrokeshire. This fragmented distribution adds to the problems that beset the habitat: ‘island’ populations of plants and animals have little chance of receiving genetic input from other sites.

Heathland owes its existence to man, and came about following forest clearance on acid, sandy soils. Regimes of grazing, cutting and periodic burning in the past have helped maintain heathland, and continued management is needed to ensure an appropriate balance between scrub encroachment and the maintenance of an open habitat. Ironically, man is also the biggest threat to the habitat: uncontrolled burns cause damage that takes decades or more to repair, while the destruction of heathland for housing developments obviously means the loss of this unique habitat for good.

The habitat’s name is clearly derived from the presence, and often dominance, of members of the heath family of plants, all of which flourish on acid soils. For the ultimate visual display, visit an area of heathland in July, August and September when these plants are in full bloom.

UPLANDS

Together with more remote stretches of coastline, upland areas are perhaps the only parts of our region to retain a sense of isolation for the visitor. Many of these places appear wild and untamed, although in reality this is often just an illusion: few areas can be said to be truly pristine.

In centuries gone by, all but the highest peaks would have been wooded. Clearance of trees and subsequent, often excessive, grazing by sheep ensured that the natural woodland disappeared and cannot regenerate. In general terms, moorland is the dominant habitat in upland areas although the characteristic plants and appearance vary considerably from region to region, and are profoundly influenced by soil type and climate; communities dominated by Heather or moorland grass species form the two extremes. In a few areas, mountains dominate the landscape, sometimes rising to altitudes above the level at which trees would grow if they were allowed to do so; these areas harbour unique communities of plants, many restricted to rocky gullies and crags that escape nibbling by sheep. Highlights include Moss Campion and an intriguing range of saxifrage species.

FRESHWATER HABITATS

Freshwater habitats have the same magnetic appeal as coastal habitats. In Britain and Ireland, we are indeed fortunate in having a wealth of examples, from small ponds and streams to large lakes and river systems; few people have to travel excessive distances to visit one or more of these habitats.

Flowing water has a charm all of its own and a trip to a river or stream will invariably yield discoveries of showy marginal species such as Yellow Iris and Ragged Robin, while specialised aquatic plants flourish in areas where the water is not too polluted.

Bodies of standing water often harbour a strikingly different range of plants from those found in flowing water. Many seemingly natural lakes are man-made, or at least man-influenced, and within this category fall flooded gravel pits, and more obviously, reservoirs and canals. By mid summer a rich growth of aquatic plants, such as pondweed species, dominates many of our smaller ponds as well as the margins of lakes. Pond and lake margins are fascinating places for the botanist to explore, with bur-marigold species, Golden Dock, Mudwort and Six-stamened Waterwort among the highlights. Left to their own devices, the margins are soon encroached by stands of more robust emergent plants, and species such as Common Reed sometimes form extensive beds around larger lakes.

The encroachment of vegetation into areas of open water leads to the creation of habitats know as mires, which are more popularly referred to in a general context as marshes. Marshes often form on neutral soils, but where they are base-rich (alkaline) then the resultant habitat is called a fen. Conversely, acid soils encourage the formation of bogs. The nature of the underlying soil has a profound influence not only on the appearance of the mire in question but also on the plant species that grow there. Some wetland plants, such as Bogbean, will grow in both moderately acid and mildly alkaline conditions while others are more selective. Thus, for example, we find that certain plants, such as cotton-grasses, sundews and butterworts, are essentially restricted to acid soils while fens are home to a range of interesting sedges, plus more showy plants including Great Meadow-rue, Marsh Valerian, Marsh Pea and Greater Water-parsnip.

COASTAL HABITATS

In habitat terms the coastline is arguably Great Britain’s crowning glory. Although development has marred some areas, particularly in southern England, those that remain unspoilt there, and elsewhere in Britain and Ireland, are truly wonderful and harbour a rich array of specialised plants.

For breathtaking scenery and a sense of untamed nature, coastal cliffs offer unrivalled opportunities for the naturalist. Botanical highlights include carpets of Thrift that dominate the vegetation in many western parts of the region, with species such as Sea Carrot, Sea Campion and various sea-spurreys in attendance.

To the unenlightened eye, an estuary may seem like a vast expanse of mudflats, studded with a mosaic of bedraggled-looking vegetation and very little else. For the botanist, however, nothing could be further from the truth. Specialised plants including glassworts, sea-lavenders and Sea Purslane have evolved to cope with twice-daily inundation by sea water. Above the high tideline, intriguing salt-tolerant species thrive.

Portland Spurge is just one of the delights to greet visiting botanists on a spring trip to the extensive dune system of Braunton Burrows in Devon.

Sandy shores are beloved of holidaymakers but have much to offer the botanist too. On the landward side of the beach, colonising plants – notably Marram Grass – establish stable dune systems and subsequently these are colonised by maritime plants such as Sea Spurge as well as grassland species such as Viper’s-bugloss and Common Bird’s-foot-trefoil. Coastal shingle is a more challenging environment for a plant and it tends to be the domain of hardy specialists such as Sea-holly, Yellow Horned-poppy and Sea-kale.

In botanical terms, the stabilised shingle at Chesil Beach in Dorset is arguably the finest of its kind in Europe. Here, extensive carpets of Horseshoe Vetch can be seen, but Bird’s-foot-trefoil and Thrift also thrive in abundance.

CONSERVATION

WORKING ON THIS PROJECT gave me the opportunity to visit many wonderful botanical locations across our region, the best of which are protected, to a degree, by nature reserve status and hence are still in good order. I also revisited many unprotected wayside botanical sites that I had not seen for several years. Sadly, most had become botanically impoverished and some had even lost the special plants for which they had been known. It will come as no surprise to learn that the majority of these sites were on areas of farmland.

WHAT’S GONE WRONG?

Threats to the countryside are all too obvious these days: the swallowing of land for housing, road schemes and the like, industrial and domestic pollution, and above all changes in agricultural practices – namely the unquestioning use of ever-more ‘efficient’ herbicides since the 1950s. And problems for wild flowers in the countryside do not stop with farming. Many landowners view the land they own as something to be exploited, if not for economic gain then as a playground, without a thought for conservation.

It has come to something when the discovery of Spreading Hedge-parsley, once a widespread arable ‘weed’, is a cause for botanical celebration. Without changes in agricultural practices, species such as this – already extinct at a local level in many areas – could disappear from Britain completely.

WHAT CAN BE DONE?

Legislation and agricultural grants relating to the way the countryside is managed need to target wildlife more intelligently than is currently the case, and development and change of land use should be subject to as much restriction as exists in the world of town planning. Easy to say, but much harder to put into practice. And there seems little cause for optimism, given that statutory bodies commanded with the responsibility for nature conservation are funded by government, itself perceived as being more receptive to economic than to environmental lobbies.

WHAT CAN YOU DO?

Object to, and oppose, all major development in the countryside and support organisations that are critical of the way intensive farming and insidious urbanisation have changed the botanical face of the landscape. On a small scale, grow as much of your own food as you can, garden organically, and use local organic sources for your additional needs whenever possible. Another way that the individual can help safeguard the British countryside is to donate as much money as possible to conservation organisations for the purchase of land to remove it from the threat of intensive farming or development. Suitable recipients of donations would include organisations such as Plantlife International, the various county Wildlife Trusts, the Woodland Trust, the National Trust and the RSPB.

Although walks in the countryside sometimes induce a sense of gloomy pessimism, budding botanists should not despair. Remarkably few flowering plant species have been lost entirely from Britain and Ireland in the last century and there are still plenty of wonderful botanically rich locations around the country. Nature reserves are thriving and, with your support and enthusiasm, things can only get better.

Thankfully, it is still possible to find agricultural fields where Cornflowers and other arable weeds thrive alongside the desired crop plant, either by design or where non-intensive farming methods are used. Let us hope that sights such as this become more commonplace as enlightenment, or financial inducements, change the way some of the land is farmed.

Juniper to Nettle Families

Juniper

Juniper Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae) HEIGHT to 5m (sometimes prostrate)

Dense shrub of well-drained soils, from chalk downland to mountains. FLOWERS On separate-sex plants; those on female plants are green and oval (much of year). FRUITS Ripening in second year to form blue-black berry-like cones. LEAVES Stiff, bluish green, needle-like, in whorls of 3. STATUS Widespread and locally common.

Hazel catkins

Hazel

Hazel Corylus avellana (Betulaceae) HEIGHT to 12m

Dense woodland shrub or small tree; often coppiced. FLOWERS Catkins (male) or small red, tufted structures (female) (Jan–Mar). FRUITS Hard-cased nuts, green, ripening brown in autumn. LEAVES Appearing after flowers, 6–8cm long, circular to oval, with double-toothed margins. STATUS Common and widespread.

Bog-myrtle

Bog-myrtle Myrica gale (Myricaceae) HEIGHT to 1m

Woody, brown-stemmed shrub that is characteristic of boggy habitats, usually on acid soils. FLOWERS Orange, ovoid male catkins or pendulous brown female catkins; on separate plants (Apr). FRUITS Brownish nuts. LEAVES Oval, grey-green, smelling of resin when crushed. STATUS Widespread but local; sometimes locally dominant.

Berries

Mistletoe

Mistletoe Viscum album (Viscaceae) DIAMETER to 1m

Woody, evergreen parasite with evenly forked branches. Forms large, spherical clumps among branches of host trees, mainly apple (often in cultivation), lime and poplar. FLOWERS Inconspicuous (Feb–Apr). FRUITS White, sticky berries. LEAVES Oval, yellowish green, in opposite pairs. STATUS Widespread but local.

Bastard-toadflax

Bastard-toadflax Thesium humifusum (Santalaceae) PROSTRATE

Low-growing plant of chalk grassland with sparse branches and a woody base. FLOWERS Cup-shaped, fused; white inside, yellowish green outside; 4 or 5 pointed lobes create a starlike appearance (June–Aug). FRUITS Greenish, ovoid. LEAVES 5–15mm long, oval, yellowish green. STATUS Extremely local and habitat-specific.

Hop

Hop Humulus lupulus (Cannabaceae) HEIGHT to 6m

Twining, hairy hedgerow climber. Grows on a range of soils, often a relict of cultivation. FLOWERS Clustered; greenish yellow (male) or green and hop-like (female) (June–Aug). FRUITS Familiar hops, ripening brown in autumn. LEAVES Divided into 3–5 coarse-toothed lobes. STATUS Widespread, locally common only in the south.

Common Nettle

Common Nettle

Common Nettle Urtica dioica (Urticaceae) HEIGHT to 1m

The familiar stinging nettle. FLOWERS Pendulous catkins; borne on separate-sex plants (June–Oct). FRUITS Superficially resembling flowers. LEAVES Oval, with pointed tips, toothed, in opposite pairs; 8cm long and longer than stalks. STATUS Widespread and common, doing best on nitrogen-enriched and disturbed soils.

Small Nettle

Small Nettle Urtica urens (Urticaceae) HEIGHT to 50cm

Similar to Common Nettle but smaller and annual. FLOWERS Pendulous catkins, male and female on same plant (June–Sep). FRUITS Superficially resembling female flowers. LEAVES Oval, with pointed tips, toothed; up to 4cm long; lower leaves shorter than their stalks. STATUS Widespread and locally common on disturbed ground.

Pellitory-of-the-wall

Pellitory-of-the-wall Parietaria judaica (Urticaceae) HEIGHT to 7cm

Spreading, downy perennial with reddish stems. Colonises walls, roadsides and rocky ground. FLOWERS Clustered at leaf bases (June–Oct). FRUITS Clustered at leaf bases. LEAVES Oval, up to 5cm long and long-stalked. STATUS Widespread in England, Wales and Ireland; commonest in coastal areas and in the west.

Nettle, Birthwort and Knotweed Families

Cleave, Andrew

Mind-your-own-business

Mind-your-own-business Soleirolia soleirolii (Urticaceae) PROSTRATE

Mat-forming perennial with wiry, threadlike stems. FLOWERS Minute, pink (May–Aug). FRUITS Minute, hard to discern. LEAVES Tiny, rounded, untoothed and evergreen. STATUS A garden escape, colonising walls and paths, mainly in the south-west.

Cleave, Andrew

Asarabacca

Asarabacca Asarum europaeum (Aristolochiaceae) HEIGHT to 30cm

Evergreen perennial associated with shady banks and woodland margins. Creeping, hairy stems. In suitable locations, forms carpets often alongside ivy. FLOWERS Purplish brown, 15mm long, bell-shaped with 3 terminal lobes (May–Aug). FRUITS Brownish capsules. LEAVES Dark green, shiny, kidney-shaped. STATUS Native in a few locations but also naturalised.

Birthwort

Birthwort

Birthwort Aristolochia clematis (Aristolochiaceae) HEIGHT to 80cm

Upright, unbranched perennial of scrubby places. FLOWERS Yellow, tubular, 20–30mm long, fetid-smelling, the swollen base trapping pollinating insects; in clusters (June–Aug). FRUITS Green, pear-shaped. LEAVES Heart-shaped, strongly veined. STATUS Rare and declining; a relict of cultivation for midwifery.

Hall, Jean

Japanese Knotweed

Japanese Knotweed Fallopia japonica (Polygonaceae) HEIGHT to 2m

Fast-growing, invasive perennial, quick to colonise roadsides and other wayside places; hard to eradicate. FLOWERS Whitish, in loose, pendulous spikes arising from leaf bases (Aug–Oct). FRUITS Papery. LEAVES Large, triangular, on red, zigzag stems. STATUS Alien, but now a widespread garden escape.

Knotgrass

Knotgrass Polygonum aviculare (Polygonaceae) HEIGHT to 1m (often prostrate)

Much-branched annual of bare soil and open ground. FLOWERS Pale pink, in leaf axils (June–Oct). FRUITS Nut-like, enclosed by the withering flower. LEAVES Oval, leathery, alternate with a silvery basal sheath; main stem leaves larger than those on side branches. STATUS Widespread and common.

Equal-leaved Knotgrass

Equal-leaved Knotgrass Polygonum arenastrum (Polygonaceae) PROSTRATE

Mat-forming annual of bare ground and disturbed soil. Superficially like Knotgrass. FLOWERS Pale pink, in leaf axils (June–Oct). FRUITS Nut-like, enclosed by the withering flower. LEAVES Oval, equal in size on main stem and side branches (cf. Knotgrass). STATUS Widespread and common.

Cleave, Andrew

Ray’s Knotgrass

Ray’s Knotgrass Polygonum oxyspermum (Polygonaceae) PROSTRATE

Mat-forming annual of undisturbed coastal sand and shingle beaches. FLOWERS Pinkish white, in leaf axils (Aug–Sep). FRUITS Nut-like, protruding beyond the withering flower. LEAVES Oval, leathery, alternate, sometimes with slightly inrolled margins. STATUS Local and commonest in the west.

Buckwheat

Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum (Polygonaceae) HEIGHT to 30cm

Hairless, upright annual, usually with reddish stems. Associated with disturbed or waste ground. FLOWERS Pinkish, in stalked, branched clusters (July–Sep). FRUITS Smooth, 3-sided nuts. LEAVES Broad, arrow-shaped, the upper ones clasping the stem. STATUS Widespread but occasional, a relict of cultivation.

Common Bistort

Common Bistort

Common Bistort Persicaria bistorta (Polygonaceae) HEIGHT to 60cm

Attractive perennial of damp meadows, forming patches in suitable locations. FLOWERS Pink, in dense, 30–40mm terminal spikes (June–Aug). FRUITS Nut-like. LEAVES Oval or arrow-shaped, the lower ones stalked, the upper ones almost stalkless. STATUS Locally common in the north but rare in the south.

See also Sea Knotgrass

Knotweed Family Polygonaceae

Amphibious Bistort

Amphibious Bistort Persicaria amphibia HEIGHT to 40cm

Perennial of ponds and nearby dry land. Aquatic form has floating stems. FLOWERS Pink, in cylindrical spikes (June–Sep). FRUITS Nut-like. LEAVES Narrow; aquatic forms hairless, truncate at the base and long-stalked; terrestrial forms downy, rounded at the base and short-stalked. STATUS Locally common.

Alpine Bistort

Alpine Bistort Persicaria vivipara HEIGHT to 30cm

Upright, unbranched perennial of upland and northern grassland. FLOWERS In terminal spikes; upper ones pale pink, lower ones reddish-brown bulbils (a means of vegetative reproduction) (June–Aug). FRUITS Nut-like. LEAVES Narrow, grasslike, the margins inrolled. STATUS Locally common from N Wales northwards.

Water-pepper

Small Water-pepper

Water-pepper Persicaria hydropiper HEIGHT to 70cm

Upright, branched annual, characteristic of damp, bare ground such as winter-wet ruts, and shallow water. FLOWERS Pale pink, in long spikes that droop at the tip (July–Sep). FRUITS Small and nut-like. LEAVES Narrow, oval, with a peppery taste when chewed. STATUS Widespread and common, except in the north. Small Water-pepper P. minor is similar but much smaller (to 30cm), with shorter, narrower leaves (5–8mm across) that are not peppery. Local and scarce on bare pond margins.

Redshank

Redshank

Redshank Persicaria maculosa HEIGHT to 60cm

Upright or sprawling hairless annual with much-branched reddish stems. Found on disturbed ground and arable field margins. FLOWERS Pink, in terminal spikes (June–Oct). FRUITS Nut-like. LEAVES Narrow, oval, usually showing a dark central mark. STATUS Widespread and common throughout.

Pale Persicaria

Pale Persicaria

Pale Persicaria Persicaria lapathifolia HEIGHT to 60cm

Upright or sprawling annual. Similar to Redshank but stems usually greenish and hairy. Found on disturbed ground and arable field margins. FLOWERS Greenish white, in terminal spikes (June–Oct). FRUITS Nut-like. LEAVES Narrow, oval. STATUS Widespread and generally common throughout.

Black-bindweed

Copse-bindweed

Black-bindweed Fallopia convolvulus HEIGHT to 1m

Extremely common, clockwise-twining annual that both trails on the ground and climbs among wayside plants. FLOWERS Greenish and rather dock-like, in loose spikes arising from leaf axils (July–Oct). FRUITS Nut-like, blackish. LEAVES Arrow-shaped, on angular stems. STATUS Widespread and common. Copse-bindweed F. dumetorum is similar but has much longer fruit stalks (4–8mm). Scarce.

Mountain Sorrel

Mountain Sorrel Oxyria digyna HEIGHT to 30cm

Upright, hairless perennial of damp ground in upland areas; often found beside streams. FLOWERS Greenish with red margins, in loose, upright spikes (July–Aug). FRUITS Flat, broad-winged. LEAVES Entirely basal; rounded to kidney-shaped. STATUS Widespread and locally common in upland and northern areas.

Common Sorrel

Common Sorrel Rumex acetosa HEIGHT to 60cm

Variable perennial of grassy habitats. Whole plant often turns red as it goes over. FLOWERS Reddish, in slender spikes (May–July). FRUITS Nut-like with a small tubercle. LEAVES Deep green, arrow-shaped, narrow; tasting mildly of vinegar. STATUS Widespread and common.

Sheep’s Sorrel

Sheep’s Sorrel

Sheep’s Sorrel Rumex acetosella HEIGHT to 25cm

Short, upright perennial of bare, well-drained acid soils. FLOWERS Greenish, in loose, slender spikes (May–Aug). FRUITS Nut-like. LEAVES Arrow-shaped but with basal lobes pointing forwards; upper leaves clasp the stem. STATUS Widespread and common in suitable habitats.

Curled Dock leaf

Fruit

Morgan, Lee

Curled Dock

Fruits

Curled Dock Rumex crispus HEIGHT to 1m

Upright perennial of rough meadows and disturbed soils. FLOWERS Flattened, oval, in dense, leafless spikes that do not spread away from the stem (June–Oct). FRUITS Oval, untoothed, usually with a single tubercle. LEAVES Narrow, to 25cm long and with wavy edges. STATUS Widespread and common.

Northern Dock

Northern Dock Rumex longifolius HEIGHT to 1.5m

Upright perennial of disturbed ground, often beside rivers and roads, or near the coast. Rather similar to Curled Dock. FLOWERS Pale green, in narrow spikes. FRUITS Heart-shaped, lacking teeth and tubercles (July–Sep). LEAVES To 80cm long, broader than those of Curled Dock. STATUS Locally common only in central Scotland.

Smith, Don

Water Dock

Water Dock Rumex hydrolapathum HEIGHT to 2m

Large, unbranched perennial, associated with damp habitats such as ditches, river banks, canals and marshes. FLOWERS In tall, dense spikes (July–Sep). FRUITS Triangular, with few small teeth and 3 tubercles. LEAVES Oval, to 1m long, tapering at base. STATUS Widespread but absent from the north; commonest in S and E England.

Scottish Dock

Scottish Dock Rumex aquaticus HEIGHT to 1.5m

Similar to Water Dock but more slender and less branched. Associated with waterside vegetation but restricted to Loch Lomond. FLOWERS In tall, dense spikes (July–Sep). FRUITS Triangular, lacking tubercles. LEAVES Long, triangular, with a broad base. STATUS Found only along E shores of Loch Lomond.

Broad-leaved Dock

Fruits

Broad-leaved Dock Rumex obtusifolius HEIGHT to 1m

Familiar upright perennial of field margins and disturbed meadows. FLOWERS In loose spikes that are leafy at the base (June–Aug). FRUITS With prominent teeth and 1 tubercle. LEAVES Broadly oval, heart-shaped at the base; up to 25cm long. STATUS Widespread and extremely common throughout.

Clustered Dock

Fruits

Clustered Dock Rumex conglomeratus HEIGHT to 1m

Upright perennial with a zigzag stem and spreading branches. Found in meadows and woodland margins, often on damp soil. FLOWERS In leafy spikes. FRUITS Small, untoothed, with 3 elongated tubercles (June–Aug). LEAVES Oval; basal ones heart-shaped at base and often waisted. STATUS Mostly common but rare in Scotland.

Fruit

Wood Dock

Fruits

Wood Dock Rumex sanguineus HEIGHT to 1m

Upright, straggly and branched perennial of grassy woodland rides and shady meadows. FLOWERS In spikes; leafy only at the base (June–Aug). FRUITS With a single elongated wart. LEAVES Oval; basal ones heart-shaped at base, sometimes red-veined and never waisted. STATUS Widespread and common, mainly absent from Scotland.

Leaf

Fruit

Fiddle Dock

Fruits

Fiddle Dock Rumex pulcher HEIGHT to 30cm

Upright to spreading perennial with branches spreading at right angles. Favours well-drained soil, often near the coast. FLOWERS On spikes in widely separated whorls (June–Aug). FRUITS Toothed, with 3 tubercles. LEAVES To 10cm, waisted and violin-shaped. STATUS Local, and restricted to S England and S Wales.

Marsh Dock fruit

Golden Dock fruit

Golden Dock

Marsh Dock

Golden Dock Rumex maritimus HEIGHT to 70cm

Annual or biennial of muddy freshwater margins. Turns golden yellow in fruit. FLOWERS In dense, widely separated whorls (June–Aug). FRUITS With 3 tubercles and teeth longer than valves. LEAVES Lanceolate. STATUS Widespread but local, mainly in the south. Marsh Dock R. palustris is similar but does not turn yellow; fruit teeth shorter than valve.

See also Shore Dock

Blinks to Goosefoot Families

Springbeauty

Springbeauty Claytonia perfoliata (Portulacaceae) HEIGHT to 30cm

Annual, introduced from N America; naturalised on dry, sandy soil. FLOWERS White, 5-petalled, 5mm across; in loose spikes (Apr–July). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Oval and stalked at the base; flowering stems bear fused pairs of perfoliate leaves. STATUS Widespread and locally abundant.

Pink Purslane

Pink Purslane Claytonia sibirica (Portulacaceae) HEIGHT to 30cm

Annual or perennial, introduced from N America. Favours damp woods. FLOWERS Pink with darker veins, 5-petalled, 15–20mm across (Apr–July). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Oval, stalked at the base; flowering stems carry opposite pairs of unstalked leaves. STATUS Widely naturalised.

Blinks

Blinks Montia fontana (Portulacaceae) USUALLY PROSTRATE

Low-growing, sometimes mat-forming plant of bare, damp ground; sometimes grows partly submerged in water. Stems sometimes reddish. FLOWERS Tiny, white; in terminal clusters (May–Oct). FRUITS Rounded capsules. LEAVES Narrow oval, opposite. STATUS Widespread and common but least so in the south.

Hottentot-fig

Hottentot-fig Carpobrotus edulis (Aizoaceae) CREEPING

Exotic-looking fleshy perennial, introduced from S Africa. Forms carpets on coastal cliffs and banks. FLOWERS Usually yellow (sometimes fade pinkish), 7–10cm across, many-petalled (May–Aug). FRUITS Swollen and succulent. LEAVES Dark green, succulent, 3-sided, 6–7cm long and narrow. STATUS Naturalised in the south-west.

Fathen

Fat-hen

Flowers

Fat-hen Chenopodium album (Chenopodiaceae) HEIGHT to 1m

Upright, branched annual of disturbed arable land. Often has a mealy appearance. FLOWERS Whitish green, in leafy spikes (June–Oct). FRUITS Rounded, and surrounded by 5 sepals, in a ring. LEAVES Green, matt-looking due to a mealy coating; varying from oval to diamond-shaped. STATUS Common. Fig-leaved Goosefoot C. ficifolium is similar but with fig-like leaves. The flowers are greenish (July–Oct). Local on clay in central and S England.

Red Goosefoot

Fig-leaved Goosefoot

Red Goosefoot

Flowers

Red Goosefoot Chenopodium rubrum (Chenopodiaceae) HEIGHT to 60cm

Variable upright annual, of manure-enriched soils. Stems often turn red in old plants. FLOWERS Small, numerous, in upright, leafy spikes. FRUITS Rounded, enclosed by 2–4 sepals (July–Oct). LEAVES Shiny, diamond-shaped, toothed. STATUS Common only in S England.

Many-seeded Goosefoot

Many-seeded Goosefoot

Flowers

Many-seeded Goosefoot Chenopodium polyspermum (Chenopodiaceae) HEIGHT to 60cm

Spreading or upright annual stems square and usually reddish. Favours light, disturbed soils. FLOWERS Small, numerous, in long spikes (July–Sep). FRUITS Partly enclosed by sepals. LEAVES Oval, untoothed, decreasing in size up stem. STATUS Widespread in England.

Good-King-Henry

Good-King-Henry

Flowers

Good-King-Henry Chenopodium bonus-henricus (Chenopodiaceae) HEIGHT to 50cm

Upright introduced perennial; stems often streaked red. Favours disturbed arable land and waste ground. FLOWERS Numerous, in narrow, leafless spikes (May–Aug). FRUITS Ringed by sepals at the base. LEAVES Mealy when young but dark green with age; triangular in outline. STATUS Local.

Frosted Orache

Frosted Orache Atriplex laciniata (Chenopodiaceae) USUALLY PROSTRATE

Distinctive silvery-grey plant that is characteristic of sandy beaches. Stems usually flushed with pink. FLOWERS Whitish, in clusters (July–Sep). FRUITS Diamond-shaped, toothed. LEAVES Fleshy, mealy, toothed, diamond-shaped. STATUS Widespread, locally common but exclusively coastal.

See also Saltmarsh Goosefoot

Goosefoot Family Chenopodiaceae

Babington’s Orache

Babington’s Orache Atriplex glabriscula PROSTRATE

A spreading, mealy annual. Restricted to stabilised shingle and bare, coastal ground. Stems usually reddish; whole plant often turns red in autumn. FLOWERS In leafy spikes (July–Sep). FRUITS Diamond-shaped, maturing silvery white. LEAVES Triangular or diamond-shaped. STATUS Locally common.

Common Orache

Common Orache

Flowers

Common Orache Atriplex patula HEIGHT to 60cm

Variable, branched annual; sometimes upright but often prostrate. Found on bare ground. FLOWERS Small, greenish, in leafy spikes (July–Sep). FRUITS Diamond-shaped, toothless, lacking warts. LEAVES Toothed; upper ones lanceolate; lower ones triangular. STATUS Widespread and common.

Spear-leaved Orache

Spear-leaved Orache Atriplex prostrata HEIGHT to 70cm

Upright annual; stems often tinged red. Favours waste and bare ground near the sea. FLOWERS In rather short spikes (July–Sep). FRUITS Triangular; surrounded by green bracts. LEAVES Triangular in outline; toothed; basal, largest teeth are at right angles to the stalk. STATUS Widespread and locally common.

Grass-leaved Orache

Grass-leaved Orache Atriplex littoralis HEIGHT to 1m

Upright annual of bare coastal ground. FLOWERS Small, greenish, in spikes with small leaves (July–Sep). FRUITS Greenish, toothed, warty. LEAVES Long and narrow, sometimes with shallow teeth. STATUS Locally common.

Sea Beet

Sea Beet Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima HEIGHT to 1m

Sprawling, clump-forming perennial of cliffs, shingle beaches and other coastal habitats. FLOWERS Green, in dense, leafy spikes (July–Sep). FRUITS Spiky; often sticking together in a clump. LEAVES Dark green, glossy and leathery with reddish stems; shape varying from oval to triangular. STATUS Locally common.

Sea Purslane with Common Sea-lavender

Sea Purslane Atriplex portulacoides HEIGHT to 1m

Spreading, mealy perennial that sometimes forms rounded clumps. Entirely coastal, and restricted to the drier reaches of saltmarshes. FLOWERS Yellowish, in spikes (July–Oct). FRUITS Lobed. LEAVES Grey-green, oval at the base but narrow further up the stem. STATUS Widespread and locally common.

Common Glasswort

Common Glasswort Salicornia europaea HEIGHT to 30cm

Fleshy, yellowish-green annual; fancifully recalls a tiny cactus. Often appears segmented. Entirely coastal. A classic saltmarsh plant that tolerates tidal immersion in sea water. FLOWERS Tiny; appearing at stem junctions, of equal size and in 3s (Aug–Sep). FRUITS Minute seeds. LEAVES Small, paired, fleshy. STATUS Locally abundant.

Perennial Glasswort flowers

Perennial Glasswort

Perennial Glasswort Sarcocornia perennis HEIGHT to 30cm

Branched and patch-forming succulent perennial with woody lower stems that turn orange with age. Entirely coastal; restricted to drier reaches of saltmarshes. FLOWERS Small, yellow, appearing at stem junctions, in 3s, the central one largest (Aug–Oct). FRUITS Minute. LEAVES Small, paired, fleshy. STATUS Local in S and E England, and S Wales.

Prickly Saltwort flowers

Prickly Saltwort

Prickly Saltwort Salsola kali HEIGHT to 50cm

Spiky-looking, prickly annual that is typical of sandy beaches, usually growing near the strandline. Occasionally found beside regularly salted roads inland. FLOWERS Tiny, yellowish; appearing at leaf bases (July–Oct). FRUITS Similar to flowers. LEAVES Swollen, flattened-cylindrical, spiny-tipped. STATUS Locally common.

Goosefoot and Pink Families

Annual Sea-blite

Annual Sea-blite Suaeda maritima (Chenopodiaceae) HEIGHT to 50cm

Much-branched annual of saltmarshes. Forms small clumps that vary from yellowish green to reddish. FLOWERS Tiny, green; 1–3 appearing in axils of upper leaves (Aug–Oct). FRUITS Producing dark, flattish seeds. LEAVES Succulent, cylindrical, pointed. STATUS Widespread and locally common on all suitable coasts.

Shrubby Sea-blite

Shrubby Sea-blite Suaeda vera (Chenopodiaceae) HEIGHT to 1m

Much-branched, evergreen perennial with woody stems. Restricted to coastal shingle and upper saltmarshes. FLOWERS Tiny, yellowish green; 1–3 appearing in leaf axils (June–Oct). FRUITS Producing rounded, black seeds. LEAVES Succulent, bluish green, blunt and almost semicircular in cross-section. STATUS Locally common in SE England.

Thyme-leaved Sandwort

Thyme-leaved Sandwort Arenaria serpyllifolia (Caryophyllaceae) USUALLY PROSTRATE

Downy, grey-green annual of dry, bare soils. FLOWERS White, 5-petalled, 5–7mm across (May–Sep); green sepals shorter than petals. FRUITS Pear-shaped. LEAVES Oval; in opposite pairs on slender stems. STATUS Widespread and common.

Three-nerved Sandwort

Three-nerved Sandwort

Three-nerved Sandwort Moehringia trinervia (Caryophyllaceae) HEIGHT to 40cm

Straggly, downy annual of undisturbed woodlands. FLOWERS White, 5-petalled, 5–6mm across; on long stalks (Apr–July). White-margined green sepals are twice as long as the petals. FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Ovate, with 3–5 obvious veins beneath. STATUS Widespread and locally common.

Spring Sandwort

Spring Sandwort Minuartia verna (Caryophyllaceae) HEIGHT to 10cm

Slightly downy perennial that is characteristic of bare limestone soils or spoil from lead-mines. FLOWERS White, 5-petalled, 7–9mm across (May–Sep). Green sepals shorter than petals. FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Narrow, 3-veined; in whorls on slender stems. STATUS Local and extremely habitat-specific.

Cyphel

Cyphel Minuartia sedoides (Caryophyllaceae) HEIGHT to 3cm

Distinctive, cushion-forming perennial of damp, stony ground on mountain tops. FLOWERS Yellow, 4mm across; lacking petals (June–Aug). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Narrow, fleshy, densely packed. STATUS Restricted to mountains in the Scottish Highlands and a few Scottish islands.

Sea Sandwort

Sea Sandwort Honckenya peploides (Caryophyllaceae) PROSTRATE

Mat-forming perennial that is familiar on stabilised coastal shingle and sandy beaches. FLOWERS Greenish white, 6–8mm across (May–Aug). Petals slightly shorter than sepals. FRUITS Yellowish green, pea-like. LEAVES Oval, fleshy; in opposite pairs on creeping stems. STATUS Locally common around coasts.

Greater Stitchwort

Greater Stitchwort Stellaria holostea (Caryophyllaceae) HEIGHT to 50cm

Familiar perennial of open woodland, woodland rides and hedgerows. Note rough-edged stems. FLOWERS White, with 5 notched petals; on slender stems (Apr–June). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Narrow, fresh green, rough-edged and grass-like; easily overlooked in the absence of flowers. STATUS Widespread and common.

Marsh Stitchwort

Marsh Stitchwort Stellaria palustris (Caryophyllaceae) HEIGHT to 60cm

Rather straggly perennial of fens and marshes. Similar to Greater Stitchwort but with smooth stems and smooth-edged leaves. FLOWERS White, 12–20mm across, with 5 deeply notched petals (May–Aug). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Grey-green, narrow. STATUS Extremely local.

See also Arctic Sandwort

Pink Family Caryophyllaceae

Bog Stitchwort

Lesser Stitchwort

Lesser Stitchwort Stellaria graminea HEIGHT to 50cm

Perennial of open woodland, meadows and hedgerows, mainly on acid soils. Note smooth-edged stems. FLOWERS White, 5–15mm across, with 5 deeply divided petals (May–Aug). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Long, narrow, smooth-edged and grass-like. STATUS Widespread and common throughout. Bog Stitchwort S. alsine is similar but tiny and straggling. Flowers 5–7mm across, petals deeply divided and shorter than sepals (May–June). Widespread in damp places.

Burbidge, Brinsley

Wood Stitchwort

Wood Stitchwort Stellaria nemorum HEIGHT to 60cm

Rather straggly perennial with hairy stems. Found in damp woodland. FLOWERS White, 15–20mm across, the petals deeply divided into narrow lobes (May–Aug). Petals twice as long as sepals. FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Oval, pointed; the lower ones stalked, the upper ones sessile. STATUS Widespread but local.

Common Chickweed

Common Chickweed Stellaria media HEIGHT to 30cm

Annual of disturbed ground. Sometimes prostrate. Stems hairy in lines on alternate sides between leaf nodes. FLOWERS White, 5-petalled, 5–10mm across; 3–8 stamens (Jan–Dec). FRUITS Capsules on long, drooping stalks. LEAVES Oval, fresh green and opposite; upper ones unstalked. STATUS Widespread and common.

Greater Chickweed

Greater Chickweed Stellaria neglecta HEIGHT to 50cm

Annual or short-lived perennial of damp, shady ground. Similar to Common Chickweed but more robust. Stems hairy in lines on alternate sides between leaf nodes. FLOWERS White, 5-petalled, 10–12mm across; 10 stamens (Apr–July). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Oval, in opposite pairs. STATUS Local.

Common Mouse-ear

Common Mouse-ear Cerastium fontanum HEIGHT to 30cm

Hairy perennial, found in gardens and grasslands, and on disturbed ground. Flowering and non-flowering shoots occur. FLOWERS White, 5–7mm across, with 5 deeply notched petals (Apr–Oct). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Grey-green, in opposite pairs. STATUS Widespread and common throughout.

StickyMouse-ear

Sticky Mouse-ear Cerastium glomeratum HEIGHT to 40cm

Annual with sticky, glandular hairs. Found on dry, bare ground. FLOWERS White, 10–15mm across, with 5 deeply notched petals; in compact, clustered heads (Apr–Oct). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Pointed-ovate, in opposite pairs. STATUS Widespread and common throughout.

Alpine Mouse-ear

Alpine Mouse-ear Cerastium alpinum HEIGHT to 10cm

Tufted, mat-forming perennial whose stems and leaves bear long white hairs. Found on stony ground on mountains. FLOWERS White, 18–25mm across, with 5 notched petals (June–Aug). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Ovate, the bracts having membranous margins. STATUS Local and scarce, restricted to mountains.

Burbidge, Brinsley

Field Mouse-ear

Field Mouse-ear Cerastium arvense HEIGHT to 30cm

Spreading, downy perennial of dry, free-draining ground, mainly on calcareous or gravelly soils. Sometimes forms sizeable patches. FLOWERS White, 12–20mm across, with 5 deeply notched petals (Apr–Aug). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Ovate, paired. STATUS Local, mainly in E England.

Sea Mouse-ear

Sea Mouse-ear Cerastium diffusum HEIGHT to 30cm

Low annual that is sometimes prostrate. Covered in sticky hairs and found on sandy ground, mainly near the sea. FLOWERS White, 3–6mm across, with 4 notched petals (Apr–July). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Ovate, dark green; bracts do not have transparent margins. STATUS Locally common near the coast but scarce inland.

See also Shetland Mouse-ear

Water Chickweed

Water Chickweed Myosoton aquaticum HEIGHT to 1m

Straggling perennial of damp, grassy ground and river margins. FLOWERS White, 12–20mm across, with 5 deeply divided petals (much longer than sepals) (June–Oct). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Heart-shaped with wavy edges; in opposite pairs, upper leaves unstalked. STATUS Common in England and Wales; scarce elsewhere.

Upright Chickweed

Upright Chickweed Moenchia erecta HEIGHT to 8cm

Tiny, upright annual of short, dry grassland, typically on gravelly or sandy soils. FLOWERS White with 4 petals, opening only in bright sunshine (Apr–June). Sepals white-edged and longer than petals. FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Waxy grey-green, stiff, narrow. STATUS Local in England and Wales only.

Annual Pearlwort

Annual Pearlwort Sagina apetala HEIGHT to 8cm

Straggling, wiry annual of short, dry grassland and bare ground, usually on sandy soils. No basal rosette. FLOWERS With minute greenish petals and 4 longer greenish sepals that spread in fruit; on long stems (Apr–Aug). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Narrow, bristle-tipped, with hairy margins. STATUS Widespread and common.

Sea Pearlwort

Sea Pearlwort Sagina maritima HEIGHT to 8cm

Wiry annual that is similar to Annual Pearlwort but fleshy. Found on bare, dry ground, mainly near the sea. FLOWERS With minute greenish petals and 4 longer purplish sepals that do not spread in fruit (May–Sep). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Fleshy, blunt (no bristle). STATUS Widespread but local.

Heath Pearlwort

Heath Pearlwort Sagina subulata HEIGHT to 10cm

Mat-forming, downy perennial with a basal rosette. Found on dry, sandy or gravelly soils. FLOWERS With 5 white petals that are equal to, or longer than, sepals; on slender, stickily hairy stalks (May–Aug). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Narrow, bristle-tipped and downy. STATUS Locally common in the north and west; scarce or absent elsewhere.

Knotted Pearlwort

Knotted Pearlwort Sagina nodosa HEIGHT to 12cm

Wiry perennial; stems look ‘knotted’ due to clustered arrangement of leaves. Found on damp, sandy soils; often coastal. FLOWERS White, 10mm across, with 5 petals that are twice as long as sepals; 5 styles (cf. Spring Sandwort, p.34) (July–Sep). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Short, clustered. STATUS Widespread but local.

Four-leaved Allseed

Procumbent Pearlwort

Procumbent Pearlwort Sagina procumbens PROSTRATE

Creeping perennial of damp, bare ground. Forms mats comprising a central rosette with radiating shoots that root at intervals, giving rise to erect flowering stems. FLOWERS Green, petal-less and borne on side shoots (May–Sep). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Narrow, bristle-tipped but not hairy. STATUS Widespread and common. Four-leaved Allseed Polycarpon tetraphyllum is a much-branched annual with leaves in 2s and 4s. Flowers are tiny and whitish. Common only on Isles of Scilly; rare near coast in SW England.

Corn Spurrey

Corn Spurrey Spergula arvensis HEIGHT to 30cm

Straggling, stickily hairy annual. A weed of arable land with sandy soils. FLOWERS 4–7mm across, with 5 whitish petals (May–Aug). FRUITS Capsules; longer than sepals and drooping at first. LEAVES Narrow, in whorls along the stems. STATUS Widespread but less common than formerly, through herbicide use.

Rock Sea-spurrey

Flower

Rock Sea-spurrey Spergularia rupicola HEIGHT to 20cm

Stickily hairy perennial, often with purplish stems. Found on cliffs and rocky places near the sea. Sometimes forms clumps with woody bases. FLOWERS Pink, 8–10mm across, with 5 petals (petals and sepals equal) (June–Sep). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Narrow, flattened and fleshy, in whorls. STATUS Locally common in the west.

See also Strapwort, Fringed Rupturewort, Coral-necklace, Smooth Rupturewort and Alpine Pearlwort

Greater Sea-spurrey

Greater Sea-spurrey Spergularia media HEIGHT to 10cm

Robust, fleshy perennial associated with the drier, upper reaches of saltmarshes. FLOWERS Pinkish white, 7–12mm across, the 5 petals longer than the sepals (June–Sep). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Fleshy, bristle-tipped, semicircular in cross-section. STATUS Widespread and common around coasts.

Lesser Sea-spurrey

Lesser Sea-spurrey Spergularia marina PROSTRATE

Straggling, often stickily hairy annual. Found on the drier, grassy upper margins of saltmarshes. FLOWERS Deep pink, 6–8mm across; 5 petals shorter than the sepals (May–Aug). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Narrow, fleshy, pointed; in opposite pairs on trailing stems. STATUS Widespread and locally common around the coast.

Sand Spurrey

Sand Spurrey Spergularia rubra PROSTRATE

Straggling, stickily hairy annual or biennial. Found on dry, sandy ground. FLOWERS Pink, 3–5mm across; 5 petals shorter than sepals (May–Sep). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Grey-green, narrow, bristle-tipped; in whorls with silvery, lanceolate stipules. STATUS Widespread and locally common.

Bladder Campion

Bladder Campion Silene vulgaris HEIGHT to 80cm

Upright perennial of dry grassland on well-drained soil; often on chalk. FLOWERS White, drooping, 16–18mm across (June–Aug); petals deeply divided; calyx swollen to form a purple-veined bladder. FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Grey-green, oval; in opposite pairs. STATUS Widespread but common only in the south.

Sea Campion

Sea Campion Silene uniflora HEIGHT to 20cm

Cushion-forming perennial that is confined to coastal habitats, notably cliffs and shingle beaches. FLOWERS White, 20–25mm across, with overlapping petals; on upright stems (June–Aug). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Grey-green, waxy, fleshy. STATUS Widespread and locally common around the coast.

White Campion

White Campion Silene latifolia HEIGHT to 1m

Hairy, branched perennial of disturbed ground and grassy habitats. Sometimes hybridises with Red Campion. FLOWERS White, 25–30mm across, with 5 petals; dioecious, male flowers smaller than females (May–Oct). FRUITS With erect teeth. LEAVES Oval, in opposite pairs. STATUS Widespread and common.

Moss Campion

Moss Campion

Moss Campion Silene acaulis PROSTRATE

Charming, cushion-forming perennial. Found on mountain tops and rocky ledges, but also near the sea in the far north. FLOWERS Pink, 9–12mm across, with 5 petals (June–Aug). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Narrow, densely packed, giving the cushion a moss-like appearance. STATUS Local on suitable mountains, from Wales northwards.

Red Campion

Red Campion Silene dioica HEIGHT to 1m

Hairy biennial or perennial of hedgerows, grassy banks and wayside places generally. FLOWERS Reddish pink, 20–30mm across; male flowers smaller than females and on separate plants (Mar–Oct). FRUITS Revealing 10 reflexed teeth when ripe. LEAVES Hairy, in opposite pairs. STATUS Widespread and common.

Nottingham Catchfly flower in daytime

Nottingham Catchfly

Nottingham Catchfly Silene nutans HEIGHT to 50cm

Slightly downy and sticky perennial of calcareous grassland and shingle beaches. FLOWERS Nodding, 17mm across; pinkish-white petals are inrolled in the daytime but roll back at dusk (May–July). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Oval; lower ones stalked but stem leaves unstalked. STATUS Local and scattered.

See also Spanish Catchfly and Shetland Red Campion

Bush, Robin

Night-flowering Catchfly

Night-flowering Catchfly Silene noctiflora HEIGHT to 60cm

Stickily hairy annual of arable fields, mainly on chalk or sandy soils. FLOWERS Similar to White Campion but with petals pinkish above, yellowish below; inrolled by day, opening at night, when they are scented (May–July). FRUITS Capsules with 6 reflexed teeth. LEAVES Ovate. STATUS Local and declining.

Small-flowered Catchfly

Small-flowered Catchfly Silene gallica HEIGHT to 40cm

Stickily hairy annual of arable land and disturbed, mainly sandy soils. FLOWERS Pinkish or white, and sometimes flushed red at the base (var. quinquevulnera, see photo left), 10–12mm across; in 1-sided spikes (June–Oct). FRUITS Inflated capsules. LEAVES Hairy, upper ones narrower than basal ones. STATUS Widespread but local and generally scarce. Restricted to unimproved arable fields.

Sand Catchfly

Sand Catchfly Silene conica HEIGHT to 35cm

Upright, stickily hairy, greyish-green annual. Found on sandy soils, mainly coastal. FLOWERS 4–5mm across, with 5 notched and pinkish petals; in clusters (May–July). FRUITS Forming within inflated, flagon-shaped capsules. LEAVES Narrow, downy. STATUS Local and scarce, restricted mainly to coastal SE England.

Cleave, Andrew

Soapwort

Soapwort Saponaria officinalis HEIGHT to 1m

Straggling, hairless perennial with brittle stems. Found on roadside verges and waste ground, and in damp woodland. FLOWERS Pink, 25–35mm across (June–Aug). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Narrowly oval, distinctly veined. STATUS Possibly native in a few sites but mainly a naturalised garden escape.

Ragged-robin

Ragged-robin Lychnis flos-cuculi HEIGHT to 65cm

Delicate-looking perennial of damp meadows, fens and marshes. FLOWERS Pink, with 5 petals, each divided into 4 ‘ragged’ lobes (May–Aug). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Narrow, grass-like, rough; upper ones in opposite pairs. STATUS Widespread and common, but decreasing through agricultural changes (e.g. land drainage).

Maiden Pink

Maiden Pink Dianthus deltoides HEIGHT to 20cm

Hairy perennial that sometimes forms clumps. Associated with dry, sandy soils. FLOWERS 18–20mm across, with 5 pink petals that show white basal spots and have toothed margins (June–Sep). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Narrow, rough-edged, grey-green. STATUS Widespread but extremely local.

Deptford Pink

Deptford Pink Dianthus armeria HEIGHT to 60cm

Dark green, slightly hairy annual. Found in dry, grassy places, mainly on chalk or sandy soils. FLOWERS 9–13mm across, with reddish-pink petals that have toothed margins and pale spots; in clusters (June–Aug). Note the long bracts. FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Narrow. STATUS Scarce and local.

Corncockle

Corncockle Agrostemma githago HEIGHT to 70cm

Distinctive, downy annual. Associated with arable fields. FLOWERS 30–45mm across, with 5 pinkish-purple petals and long, narrow and radiating sepals (May–Aug). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Narrow, grass-like. STATUS Formerly widespread and common but now extremely scarce and erratic because of agricultural herbicides.

Annual Knawel

Annual Knawel

Annual Knawel Scleranthus annuus HEIGHT to 10cm

Yellowish-green annual. Associated with dry, bare soil and arable land. FLOWERS Comprising green, pointed sepals and no petals; in clustered heads (May–Aug). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Narrow, pointed; in opposite pairs along the wiry stems. STATUS Locally common throughout.

See also Cheddar Pink, Childing Pink, Alpine Catchfly and Perennial Knawel

Buttercup Family Ranunculaceae

Stinking Hellebore

Stinking Hellebore Helleborus foetidus HEIGHT to 75cm

Robust, strong-smelling perennial of woodland on calcareous soils. FLOWERS Green with purple margins, 15–30mm across, bell-shaped; in clusters (Jan–May). FRUITS Dry, many-seeded and splitting. LEAVES Divided into toothed lobes; lower ones persist through winter. STATUS Local and restricted to central and S England and Wales.

Burbidge, Brinsley

Green Hellebore

Green Hellebore Helleborus viridis HEIGHT to 60cm

Scentless perennial of woodland on calcareous soils. FLOWERS Green (including the margins) with pointed sepals but no petals; in clusters (Feb–Apr). FRUITS Dry, many-seeded and splitting. LEAVES Divided into bright green, elongate lobes; not evergreen. STATUS Local and scarce, in central and S England and Wales.

Winter Aconite

Winter Aconite Eranthis hyemalis HEIGHT to 10cm

Attractive perennial that sometimes forms carpets on woodland floors. FLOWERS 12–15mm across, with 6 yellow sepals; on upright stems, above the leaves (Jan–Apr). FRUITS Dry, many-seeded and splitting. LEAVES Spreading (3 per stem) and each divided into 3 lobes. STATUS Introduced but widely naturalised.

Love-in-a-mist

Love-in-a-mist Nigella damascena HEIGHT to 40cm

Upright, hairless annual, associated with disturbed ground and roadside verges. FLOWERS Comprising 5 petal-like blue sepals; solitary and terminal (June–July). FRUITS Inflated capsules. LEAVES Divided into narrow segments and arranged as a ruff below the flowers. STATUS Widely cultivated and sometimes naturalised briefly.

Marsh-marigold

Marsh-marigold Caltha palustris HEIGHT to 25cm

Widespread perennial with stout, hollow stems. Found in damp woodland, marshes and wet meadows. FLOWERS Yellow, 25–30mm across, with 5 petal-like sepals but no petals (Mar–July). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES Kidney-shaped, shiny, up to 10cm across. STATUS Widespread and locally common, but range is contracting.

Globeflower

Globeflower Trollius europaeus HEIGHT to 60cm

Attractive perennial of damp, upland and northern meadows. FLOWERS Spherical, 30–40mm across, with 10–15 yellow sepals; on long, upright stems (May–Aug). FRUITS Many-seeded, dry. LEAVES Palmately divided into toothed lobes. STATUS Absent from the south but very locally common from N Wales to Scotland, also NW Ireland.

Weston, Andrew

Baneberry

Baneberry Actaea spicata HEIGHT to 70cm

Robust and hairless perennial of woodland (typically Ash) on limestone, and limestone pavements. FLOWERS White and feathery with 4–6 petals; in spikes (May–June). FRUITS Berries, green at first but ripening black. LEAVES Pinnately divided into toothed lobes. STATUS Local, restricted to N England.

Monk’s-hood

Monk’s-hood

Monk’s-hood Aconitum napellus HEIGHT to 1m

Dark green, almost hairless perennial of damp woodland, often beside streams. FLOWERS Bluish violet, 20mm across, helmeted; in upright spikes (May–Aug). FRUITS Dry, many-seeded. LEAVES Deeply divided into palmate lobes. STATUS Local, mainly in the south and south-west. Beware confusion with naturalised garden Aconitum species.

Larkspur

Larkspur Consolida ajacis HEIGHT to 30cm

Downy annual that is occasionally found in arable field margins. FLOWERS Bluish, comprising 5 petal-like sepals and a long, backward-pointing spur; in loose spikes (June–Aug). FRUITS Dry, many-seeded. LEAVES Deeply divided into palmate lobes. STATUS Introduced (often grown in gardens) and occasional.

Pheasant’s-eye

Pheasant’s-eye Adonis annua HEIGHT to 40cm

Branched, hairless annual of arable fields on chalky soils. FLOWERS Comprising 5–8 bright red petals that are blackish at the base (June–Aug). FRUITS Long-stalked, elongate, wrinkled. LEAVES Pinnately divided and feathery, upper ones partly shrouding flowers. STATUS Rare and decreasing because of agricultural herbicides.

Mousetail

Mousetail Myosurus minimus HEIGHT to 10cm

Tufted, inconspicuous annual of arable field margins, often on sandy soil. FLOWERS Long-stalked, 5mm across, with yellowish-green petals and sepals (Mar–July). FRUITS Elongate, plantain-like (see pp), to 7cm long. LEAVES Narrow, grass-like. STATUS Scarce and declining, mainly in S England.

Meadow Buttercup

Meadow Buttercup

Fruit

Meadow Buttercup Ranunculus acris HEIGHT to 1m

Downy perennial of damp grassland habitats. FLOWERS 18–25mm across, comprising 5 shiny, yellow petals with upright sepals; on long, unfurrowed stalks (Apr–Oct). FRUITS Hook-tipped, in a rounded head. LEAVES Rounded outline, but divided into 3–7 lobes; upper ones unstalked. STATUS Widespread and abundant throughout.

Creeping Buttercup

Creeping Buttercup

Creeping Buttercup Ranunculus repens HEIGHT to 50cm

Often unwelcome perennial of lawns and other grassy places. Long, rooting runners aid its spread. FLOWERS 20–30mm across, with 5 yellow petals and upright sepals; on furrowed stalks (May–Aug). FRUITS In rounded heads. LEAVES Hairy; divided into 3 lobes; middle lobe is stalked. STATUS Widespread and common.

Bulbous Buttercup

Bulbous Buttercup

Fruit

Bulbous Buttercup Ranunculus bulbosus HEIGHT to 40cm

Hairy perennial of dry grassland, including chalk downs. Note the swollen stem base. FLOWERS 20–30mm across with 5 bright yellow petals and reflexed sepals; on furrowed stalks (Mar–July). FRUITS Smooth. LEAVES Divided into 3 lobes, each of which is stalked. STATUS Wide-spread and often abundant.

Hairy Buttercup

Fruit

Hairy Buttercup Ranunculus sardous HEIGHT to 40cm

Hairy annual of grassy places, especially near the coast. FLOWERS 15–25mm across with 5 pale yellow petals and reflexed sepals (May–Oct). FRUITS With a green border, inside which they are adorned with warts. LEAVES Divided into 3 lobes; mainly basal. STATUS Local, mainly in the south and in coastal habitats.

Corn Buttercup

Corn Buttercup Ranunculus arvensis HEIGHT to 40cm

Downy annual of arable fields. FLOWERS 10–12mm across with 5 pale lemon-yellow petals (May–July). FRUITS Distinctly spiny and bur-like. LEAVES Divided into narrow lobes. STATUS Formerly widespread but now scarce, local and declining because of agricultural herbicide use; regular only in S England.

Goldilocks Buttercup

Goldilocks Buttercup

Imperfect flower

Goldilocks Buttercup Ranunculus auricomus HEIGHT to 30cm

Slightly hairy perennial of damp, undisturbed woodland. FLOWERS 15–25mm across with yellow petals, 1 or more of which is sometimes imperfect or absent (Apr–May). FRUITS Roughly hairy. LEAVES Rounded, 3-lobed basal leaves, narrowly lobed stem leaves. STATUS Widespread but local and declining.

Small-flowered Buttercup

Small-flowered Buttercup Ranunculus parviflorus HEIGHT to 30cm

Sprawling, hairy annual of dry, bare ground, often on sandy soils. FLOWERS 3–5mm across with pale yellow petals; on furrowed stalks, often arising from the fork of a branch (May–July). FRUITS Roughly hairy. LEAVES Rounded and lobed (basal leaves); stem leaves narrowly lobed. STATUS Local in S England and S Wales.

See also Scilly Buttercup and Jersey Buttercup

Greater Spearwort

Lesser Spearwort

Greater Spearwort

Greater Spearwort Ranunculus lingua HEIGHT to 1m

Robust, upright perennial of fens and the shallow margins of ponds and lakes. Plant has long runners. FLOWERS 20–40mm across with 5 yellow petals; on furrowed stalks (June–Sep). FRUITS Rough, winged, with a curved beak. LEAVES Narrow, 25cm long, sometimes toothed. STATUS Widespread but local.

Lesser Spearwort

Flower

Lesser Spearwort Ranunculus flammula HEIGHT to 50cm

Upright or creeping perennial. Often roots where leaf nodes touch the ground. Favours damp ground, often beside rivers. FLOWERS 5–15mm across, usually solitary; on furrowed stalks (June–Oct). FRUITS Beaked but not winged. LEAVES Oval basal leaves; stem leaves narrow. STATUS Widespread, commonest in the north.

Celery-leaved Buttercup

Celery-leaved Buttercup

Celery-leaved Buttercup Ranunculus sceleratus HEIGHT to 50cm

Yellowish-green annual with hollow stems. Favours marshes and wet grazing meadows, often on trampled ground. FLOWERS 5–10mm across with pale yellow petals; in clusters (May–Sep). FRUITS With elongated heads. LEAVES Celery-like, divided into 3 lobes (basal leaves); stem leaves less divided. STATUS Locally common in the south.

Lesser Celandine

Weston, Andrew

Lesser Celandine

Lesser Celandine Ranunculus ficaria HEIGHT to 25cm

Perennial of hedgerows and open woodland; sometimes forms patches. FLOWERS 20–30mm across with 8–12 shiny yellow petals and 3 sepals (Mar–May); opening only in sunshine. FRUITS In a rounded head. LEAVES Heart-shaped, glossy, dark green. STATUS Common.

Common Water-crowfoot

Common Water-crowfoot Ranunculus aquatilis FLOATING

Annual or perennial found in both slow-flowing and still waters. FLOWERS 12–20mm across with 5 white petals (Apr–Aug). FRUITS In rounded heads. LEAVES Thread-like submerged leaves and floating ones that are entire but with toothed lobes. STATUS Widespread and common.

Stream Water-crowfoot

Stream Water-crowfoot Ranunculus pencillatus FLOATING

Annual or perennial of fast-flowing chalk streams and rivers. FLOWERS 15–25mm across with 5 white petals (May–July). FRUITS In rounded heads. LEAVES Lobed, rounded floating leaves and long, thread-like submerged ones that collapse out of water. STATUS Locally common, but mainly in the south.

Ivy-leaved Crowfoot

Ivy-leaved Crowfoot Ranunculus hederaceus CREEPING

Creeping annual or biennial, associated with bare muddy places close to water. FLOWERS 3–6mm across with 5 white petals, and sepals of similar length (May–Aug). FRUITS In rounded heads. LEAVES Vaguely ivy-like, being rounded or kidney-shaped with lobed margins. STATUS Widespread but local.

Cleave, Andrew

Pond Water-crowfoot

Pond Water-crowfoot Ranunculus peltatus FLOATING

Annual or perennial of ponds, lakes and other areas of still water. FLOWERS 15–30mm across with 5 white petals (May–Aug). FRUITS In rounded, long-stalked heads. LEAVES Lobed, rounded floating leaves and short, rigid, thread-like submerged ones. STATUS Widespread and common throughout.

Brackish Water-crowfoot

Brackish Water-crowfoot Ranunculus baudotii FLOATING

Annual or perennial of brackish pools, ditches and channels near the coast. FLOWERS 12–18mm across with 5 white petals (Apr–Aug). FRUITS In rounded, long-stalked heads. LEAVES Deeply lobed floating leaves and thread-like submerged ones that do not collapse out of water. STATUS Local around the coast.

Cleave, Andrew

Round-leaved Crowfoot

Round-leaved Crowfoot Ranunculus omiophyllus FLOATING

Creeping annual or biennial. Favours damp, muddy places, often water seepages. FLOWERS 8–12mm across, with 5 white petals twice as long as sepals (May–Aug). FRUITS In rounded heads. LEAVES Lobed and rounded. STATUS Rather local and restricted mainly to S and W England and Wales, and S Ireland.

Burbidge, Brinsley

River Water-crowfoot

River Water-crowfoot Ranunculus fluitans FLOATING

Robust perennial. Forms extensive carpets in suitable fast-flowing streams and rivers. FLOWERS 20–30mm across with 5 white, overlapping petals (May–Aug). FRUITS In rounded heads. LEAVES Divided into narrow, thread-like segments; submerged leaves only. STATUS Widespread in England but scarce elsewhere.

Columbine

Columbine

Columbine Aquilegia vulgaris HEIGHT to 1m

Familiar garden perennial but also a native plant, favouring open woods on calcareous soils. FLOWERS Nodding, purple, 30–40mm long, the petals with hook-tipped spurs (May–July). FRUITS Dry, many seeded. LEAVES Grey-green and comprising 3-lobed leaflets. STATUS Widespread but extremely local as a native species.

Wood Anemone

Wood Anemone Anemone nemorosa HEIGHT to 30cm

Perennial that sometimes forms large carpets on suitable woodland floors. FLOWERS Solitary, comprising 5–10 white or pinkish petal-like sepals (Mar–May). FRUITS Beaked, in rounded clusters. LEAVES On stems, long-stalked and divided into 3 lobes, each being further divided. STATUS Widespread and locally common.

Pasqueflower

Pasqueflower Pulsatilla vulgaris HEIGHT to 25cm

Silkily-hairy perennial of dry, calcareous grassland. FLOWERS Purple, bell-shaped with 6 petal-like sepals; upright at first, then nodding (Apr–May). FRUITS Comprising seeds with long silky hairs. LEAVES Divided 2 or 3 times and comprising narrow leaflets. STATUS Rare and restricted to a few sites in S and E England.

Traveller’s-joy

Flowers

Fruits

Traveller’s-joy Clematis vitalba LENGTH to 20m

Scrambling hedgerow perennial of chalky soils. FLOWERS Creamy, with prominent stamens; in clusters (July–Aug). FRUITS Comprising clusters of seeds with woolly, whitish plumes, hence plant’s alternative name of Old Man’s Beard. LEAVES Divided into 3–5 leaflets. STATUS Locally common in central and S England, and Wales.

Common Meadow-rue

Common Meadow-rue Thalictrum flavum HEIGHT to 1m

Upright perennial of damp meadows, ditches and fens; favours basic soils. FLOWERS With small petals that drop, but showy, yellow anthers; in dense clusters (June–Aug). FRUITS Dry, papery. LEAVES Fern-like and pinnately divided 2 or 3 times into toothed lobes. STATUS Widespread but local, common only in the south and east.

Lesser Meadow-rue

Lesser Meadow-rue

Lesser Meadow-rue Thalictrum minus HEIGHT to 1m

Variable, often short perennial of dunes, dry grassland and rocky slopes; mainly on basic soils. FLOWERS Yellowish, tinged purple, with prominent dangling stamens; in open clusters, flowers drooping at first then erect (June–Aug). FRUITS Dry, papery. LEAVES Pinnately divided 3 or 4 times. STATUS Widespread but local.

Alpine Meadow-rue

Alpine Meadow-rue Thalictrum alpinum HEIGHT to 15cm

Short, easily overlooked perennial of upland grassland and mountain ledges. FLOWERS With purplish sepals and stamens and yellow anthers; in terminal clusters on slender stems (May–July). FRUITS Dry, papery. LEAVES Twice trifoliate with dark green, rounded leaflets. STATUS Local from N Wales to Scotland; scarce in W Ireland.

Fumitory and Poppy Families

Common Fumitory

Common Fumitory Fumaria officinalis (Fumariaceae) HEIGHT to 10cm

Scrambling annual of well-drained arable soils. FLOWERS 6–7mm long, pink with crimson tips, spurred and 2-lipped, the lower petal paddle-shaped; in elongating spikes (Apr–Oct). FRUITS Globular, 1-seeded. LEAVES Grey-green, much divided; lobes all in one plane. STATUS Widespread and common.

Common Ramping-fumitory

Common Ramping-fumitory

Common Ramping-fumitory Fumaria muralis (Fumariaceae) HEIGHT to 10cm

Spreading or upright annual of arable land, banks and walls. FLOWERS 9–11mm long, pinkish purple with dark tips, the lower petal almost parallel-sided (not paddle-shaped) with erect margins; in spikes of 12–15 flowers (Apr–Oct). FRUITS Globular, 1-seeded. LEAVES Much divided. STATUS Widespread and fairly common.

Tall Ramping-fumitory

Tall Ramping-fumitory Fumaria bastardii (Fumariaceae) HEIGHT to 15cm

Robust upright annual of arable fields and waste ground. FLOWERS 9–11mm long, pink with a purple tip, the lower petal parallel-sided (not paddle-shaped); in spikes of 15–25 flowers (Apr–Oct). FRUITS Globular, 1-seeded. LEAVES Much divided. STATUS Widespread and fairly common only in W.

Climbing Corydalis

Climbing Corydalis Ceratocapnos claviculata (Fumariaceae) HEIGHT to 70cm

Delicate, climbing annual of woodland and scrub, mainly on acid soils. FLOWERS Creamy white, 5–6mm long; in clusters (June–Sep). FRUITS 2-to 3-seeded capsules. LEAVES Much divided, ending in tendrils that assist climbing. STATUS Widespread and common in W Britain but rare in Ireland.

Yellow Corydalis

Yellow Corydalis Pseudofumaria lutea (Fumariaceae) HEIGHT to 30cm

Tufted, hairless perennial found on rocky ground and old walls. FLOWERS 12–18mm long, bright yellow, 2-lipped; in clusters opposite the upper leaves (May–Sep). FRUITS Capsules. LEAVES 2 to 3 times pinnately divided; greyish green. STATUS Naturalised as a garden escape.

Common Poppy

Common Poppy

Fruit

Common Poppy Papaver rhoeas (Papaveraceae) HEIGHT to 60cm

Annual of arable land and disturbed ground. FLOWERS 6–8cm across with 4 papery, overlapping scarlet petals (often dark at the base); on slender stalks with spreading hairs (June–Aug). FRUITS Ovoid, flat-topped capsules. LEAVES Much divided into narrow segments. STATUS Widespread, commonest in S and E England; scarce in the north and west.

Long-headed Poppy

Fruit

Long-headed Poppy Papaver dubium (Papaveraceae) HEIGHT to 60cm

Annual of arable land and disturbed ground. FLOWERS 3–7cm across with 4 papery, orange-red overlapping petals with no dark basal blotch; on stalks with appressed hairs (June–Aug). FRUITS Narrow, elongated, hairless capsules. LEAVES Much divided into narrow segments. STATUS Widespread and fairly common, including the north.

Rough Poppy

Rough Poppy

Fruit

Rough Poppy Papaver hybridum (Papaveraceae) HEIGHT to 40cm

Hairy annual of arable fields, mainly on calcareous soils. FLOWERS 2–5cm across with 4 crimson, overlapping petals with dark-blotched bases; on hairy stalks (June–Aug). FRUITS Ovoid to spherical with spreading, yellowish hairs. LEAVES Much divided and bristle-tipped. STATUS Scarce and declining, mainly in S England.

Prickly Poppy

Fruit

Prickly Poppy Papaver argemone (Papaveraceae) HEIGHT to 30cm

Delicate annual of arable land, mainly on sandy soils. FLOWERS 2–6cm across with 4 pale red petals that typically do not overlap but which do have a dark basal blotch (May–Aug). FRUITS Narrow, elongated and ribbed with prickle-like bristles. LEAVES Much divided; bristle-tipped. STATUS Local and scarce, mainly in S England.

See also Western Ramping-fumitory

Poppy, Barberry and Cabbage Families

Yellow Horned-poppy

Yellow Horned-poppy Glaucium flavum (Papaveraceae) HEIGHT to 50cm

Blue-grey, clump-forming perennial of shingle beaches. FLOWERS 5–7cm across with overlapping yellow petals (June–Sep). FRUITS Elongated, curved capsules, to 30cm long. LEAVES Pinnately divided, the clasping upper ones having shallow, toothed lobes. STATUS Locally common on most suitable coasts except far N.

Welsh Poppy

Welsh Poppy Meconopsis cambrica (Papaveraceae) HEIGHT to 50cm

Showy perennial of shady woods. FLOWERS 4–6cm across with 4 overlapping, bright yellow petals; on slender stems (June–Aug). FRUITS 4-to 6-ribbed capsules that split when ripe. LEAVES Pinnately divided, toothed, stalked. STATUS Native to Wales, SW England and Ireland; naturalised as a garden escape elsewhere.

Greater Celandine

Greater Celandine Chelidonium majus (Papaveraceae) HEIGHT to 80cm

Tall, brittle-stemmed perennial. Found in hedgerows and along woodland rides. FLOWERS 2–3cm across and comprising 4 non-overlapping bright yellow petals (Apr–Oct). FRUITS Narrow capsules that split from below when ripe. LEAVES Grey-green, pinnately divided. STATUS Native but also naturalised.

Fruit

Barberry

Barberry Berberis vulgaris (Berberidaceae) HEIGHT to 2m

Small, deciduous shrub with grooved twigs and 3-forked prickles. Found in hedgerows and scrub, mainly on calcareous soils. FLOWERS Small, yellow; in hanging clusters (May–June). FRUITS Ovoid, reddish berries. LEAVES Sharp-toothed, oval; borne in tufts from axils of prickles. STATUS Scarce native; also naturalised.

Bush, Robin

Tall Rocket

Tall Rocket Sisymbrium altissimum (Brassicaceae) HEIGHT to 2m

Upright annual of waste ground; hairless above but hairy below. FLOWERS 1cm across, yellow petals, twice the length of sepals (June–Aug). FRUITS Slender, narrow and up to 10cm long. LEAVES Have very narrow lobes. STATUS Introduced but established in S and E England. Eastern Rocket S. orientale is similar but with smaller flowers and divided leaves that are spear-shaped overall. Waste ground, in S.

Bush, Robin

False London-rocket

False London-rocket Sisymbrium loeselii (Brassicaceae) HEIGHT to 60cm

Straggly, upright annual with bristly hairy lower stems. Found on waste ground. FLOWERS 4–6mm across, with 4 yellow petals twice as long as the sepals (June– Aug). FRUITS Pods 2–4cm long that do not overtop the flowers. LEAVES Deeply pinnately lobed. STATUS Casual in S; sometimes naturalised, mainly in London. London Rocket S. irio is similar but hairless. Petals equal to, or slightly longer than, sepals (Jun–Aug); slender pods overtop flowers. Wasteground, mainly London and Dublin.

Hedge Mustard

Hedge Mustard

Hedge Mustard Sisymbrium officinale (Brassicaceae) HEIGHT to 90cm

Tough, upright annual or biennial of waste ground and disturbed soil. FLOWERS 3mm across with 4 yellow petals; in terminal clusters (May–Oct). FRUITS Cylindrical, 1–2cm long, pressed close to the stem. LEAVES Variable: lower leaves deeply divided, stem leaves narrow. STATUS Widespread and common throughout.

Flixweed

Flixweed

Flixweed Descurainia sophia (Brassicaceae) HEIGHT to 80cm

Much-divided, bushy, hairy annual found on waste and bare ground, usually on sandy soils. FLOWERS 3mm across, with 4 pale yellow petals equal to the sepals; in terminal clusters (June–Aug). FRUITS Slender, cylindrical pods up to 4cm long. LEAVES Grey-green, finely divided. STATUS Widespread but distinctly local.

Bush, Robin

Treacle-mustard

Treacle-mustard Erysimum cheiranthoides (Brassicaceae) HEIGHT to 1m

Slender, upright annual with angled stems. Found on waste ground and arable field margins. FLOWERS 6–10mm across, with 4 yellow petals longer than the sepals; in terminal clusters (June–Sep). FRUITS 25mm long, slender. LEAVES Shallowly lobed, narrow. STATUS Introduced and naturalised.

Cabbage Family Brassicaceae

Janes, Ernie

Wallflower

Wallflower Erysimum cheiri HEIGHT to 60cm

Showy perennial with a woody-based stem and branched hairs. Associated with cliffs and old walls. FLOWERS 2–3cm across with 4 orange-yellow petals; in terminal clusters (Mar–June). FRUITS Flattened, 7cm long. LEAVES Narrow, untoothed. STATUS Widely naturalised as a garden escape.

Burbidge, Brinsley

Dame’s-violet

Dame’s-violet Hesperis matronalis HEIGHT to 90cm

Hairy biennial or perennial associated with hedgerows and wayside places. FLOWERS Fragrant, 17–20mm across, with 4 violet or pinkish-white petals; in terminal clusters (May–Aug). FRUITS Long, flattened, curving upwards. LEAVES Narrow, pointed, untoothed, stalked. STATUS Widely naturalised as a garden escape.

Hall, Jean

Hoary Stock

Hoary Stock Matthiola incana HEIGHT to 80cm

Downy, greyish annual or perennial with a woody-based stem. Associated with sea cliffs. FLOWERS Fragrant, 25–30mm across, with 4 white to purple petals (Apr–July). FRUITS Cylindrical pods to 13cm long. LEAVES Narrow, untoothed. STATUS Scarce and doubtfully native although possibly so in S England and S Wales.

Sea Stock

Sea Stock Matthiola sinuata HEIGHT to 80cm

Downy, grey-green perennial, the base of which is not woody. Associated with coastal dunes and sea cliffs. FLOWERS Fragrant, 25–30mm across, with 4 pinkish petals (June–Aug). FRUITS Narrow, elongated pods. LEAVES Narrow, with toothed or lobed margins. STATUS Rare; SW England, S Wales, S Ireland and Channel Islands only.

Winter-cress

Winter-cress

Winter-cress Barbarea vulgaris HEIGHT to 80cm

Upright, hairless perennial of damp ground. FLOWERS 7–9mm across with 4 yellow petals; in terminal heads (May–Aug). FRUITS Long, narrow, 4-sided pods. LEAVES Dark green, shiny; lower ones divided, the end lobe large and oval; upper stem leaves entire. STATUS Widespread but commonest in the south.

Medium-flowered Winter-cress

Medium-flowered Winter-cress

Medium-flowered Winter-cress Barbarea intermedia HEIGHT to 80cm

Upright, hairless perennial of waste ground. FLOWERS 5–6mm across with 4 yellow petals; in terminal heads (Mar–Aug). FRUITS Long, narrow, 4-sided pods. LEAVES Dark green, shiny; all lobed. STATUS Introduced, occasional but seemingly increasing.

Marsh Yellow-cress

Marsh Yellow-cress

Marsh Yellow-cress Rorippa palustris HEIGHT to 50cm

Annual of damp, marshy hollows, sometimes growing in shallow water. Stems upright, angular, hollow. FLOWERS 3mm across with 4 yellow petals equal in length to sepals; in terminal heads (June–Oct). FRUITS Elliptical pods, 4–6mm long. LEAVES Pinnately lobed. STATUS Locally common throughout, except in the north.

Creeping Yellow-cress

Creeping Yellow-cress

Creeping Yellow-cress Rorippa sylvestris HEIGHT to 50cm

Sprawling annual of damp, bare ground, with solid, not hollow, stems. FLOWERS 5mm across with 4 yellow petals twice as long as sepals; in terminal heads (June–Oct). FRUITS Elliptical pods, 8–15mm long. LEAVES Pinnately lobed. STATUS Locally common in England and Wales; scarce elsewhere.

Great Yellow-cress

Great Yellow-cress

Great Yellow-cress Rorippa amphibia HEIGHT to 1.2m

Robust, hairless perennial with stout, hollow stems. Favours damp ground and the margins of freshwater habitats. FLOWERS 5–7mm across with 4 yellow petals twice as long as sepals; in terminal heads (June–Sep). FRUITS Elliptical pods, 3–6mm long. LEAVES Shallowly lobed. STATUS Locally common in south but absent from north.

Water-cress

Water-cress Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum HEIGHT to 15cm

Usually creeping perennial of shallow streams and ditches. FLOWERS 4–6mm across with 4 white petals; in terminal heads (May–Oct). FRUITS Narrow pods, 16–18mm long, containing 2 rows of seeds. LEAVES Dark green and pinnately divided; persisting through winter. STATUS Widespread and common; widely cultivated in S England.

Hairy Bitter-cress

Hairy Bitter-cress

Hairy Bitter-cress Cardamine hirsuta HEIGHT to 30cm

Upright annual with hairless stems. Found on damp, disturbed ground. FLOWERS 2–3mm across (petals sometimes absent) and terminal (Feb–Nov). FRUITS Curved, up to 2.5cm long, overtopping flowers. LEAVES Pinnately divided with rounded lobes; seen mainly as a basal rosette plus 1–4 stem leaves. STATUS Widespread and common.

Wavy Bitter-cress

Wavy Bitter-cress

Wavy Bitter-cress Cardamine flexuosa HEIGHT to 50cm

Similar to Hairy Bitter-cress but taller and with wavy, hairy stems. Favours damp and disturbed ground. FLOWERS 3–4mm across with 4 white petals (Mar–Sep). FRUITS Curved, barely overtopping flowers. LEAVES Pinnately divided with rounded lobes; seen as a basal rosette plus 4–10 stem leaves. STATUS Widespread and common.

Bush, Robin

Large Bitter-cress

Large Bitter-cress Cardamine amara HEIGHT to 60cm

Upright perennial found in damp, shady places in woods and marshes. FLOWERS 12mm across with 4 white petals and violet anthers (Apr–June). FRUITS Slender, beaked pods, up to 4cm long. LEAVES Pinnately divided, with slightly toothed oval lobes. STATUS Wide spread but local; scarce in, or absent from, W England and S Ireland.

Cuckooflower

Cuckooflower

Cuckooflower Cardamine pratensis HEIGHT to 50cm

Variable perennial of damp, grassy places. Also known as Lady’s-smock. FLOWERS 12–20mm across with 4 pale lilac or white flowers (Apr– June). FRUITS Elongated, beaked. LEAVES Seen mainly in a basal rosette of pinnately divided leaves with rounded lobes; narrow stem leaves also present. STATUS Widespread and locally common.

Cleave, Andrew

Coralroot

Coralroot Cardamine bulbifera HEIGHT to 70cm

Perennial of undisturbed woodland on calcareous or sandy soils. FLOWERS 12–18mm across with 4 pink petals; in terminal heads (Apr–May). FRUITS Narrow, 3.5cm long. LEAVES Pinnately divided (upper ones less so) with 1–3 pairs of leaflets; borne up stem with brown bulbils in axils. STATUS Scarce and local; SE England only.

Northern Rock-cress

Northern Rock-cress Arabis petraea HEIGHT to 30cm

Variable perennial of rocky places in mountains. FLOWERS 5–7mm across with 4 whitish or lilac petals (June–Aug). FRUITS Curved, 4cm long. LEAVES Basal rosette of pinnately lobed, stalked leaves plus narrow, toothed stem leaves. STATUS Local. Tower Mustard A. glabra is tall (to 1m); greyish, arrow-shaped, clasping leaves and tiny pale flowers. Scarce on dry ground in south.

Hairy Rock-cress

Hairy Rock-cress Arabis hirsuta HEIGHT to 60cm

Variable, hairy biennial found in calcareous grassland. FLOWERS 3–5mm across with 4 white petals; in dense, terminal heads (May–Aug). FRUITS Cylindrical, upright pods 3.5cm long. LEAVES Barely toothed, oval; basal ones in a rosette, stem leaves clasping. STATUS Widespread but only locally common.

Bush, Robin

Hutchinsia

Hutchinsia Hornungia petraea HEIGHT to 15cm

Delicate, usually branching annual of limestone and sandy soils. FLOWERS 1mm across with 4 whitish petals (Mar–May). FRUITS Flattened, elliptical pods. LEAVES Pinnately divided; basal ones stalked and forming a rosette; stems leaves unstalked. STATUS Local and scarce in the west, mainly Mendips and Gower to N Yorkshire.

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