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First published in Great Britain in 1992 by Element Books Limited

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Botanical illustrations by Sarah Roche

© Julia Lawless 1992

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DEDICATION

To my mother, Kerttu

CONTENTS

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

How to Use This Book

Part I: An Introduction to Aromatics

1. Historical Roots

Natural Plant Origins

Ancient Civilizations

Treasures from the East

Alchemy

The Scientific Revolution

2. Aromatherapy and Herbalism

The Birth of Aromatherapy

Herbal Medicine

Therapeutic Guidelines

Safety Precautions

3. The Body-Actions and Applications

How Essential Oils Work

The Skin

The Circulation, Muscles and Joints

The Respiratory System

The Digestive System

The Genito-urinary and Endocrine Systems

The Immune System

The Nervous System

The Mind

4. How to use Essential Oils at Home

Massage

Skin Oils and Lotions

Hot and Cold Compresses

Hair Care

Flower Waters

Baths

Vaporization

Steam Inhalation

Douche

Neat Application

Internal Use

5. Creative Blending

Therapeutic and Aesthetic Properties

Correct Proportions

Synergies

Fragrant Harmony

Personal Perfumes

6. A Guide to Aromatic Materials

Habitat

Chemistry

Methods of Extraction

Natural versus ‘Nature Identical’

Part II: THE OILS

Ajowan

Allspice

Almond, Bitter

Ambrette Seed

Amyris

Angelica

Anise, Star

Aniseed

Arnica

Asafetida

Balsam, Canadian

Balsam, Copaiba

Balsam, Peru

Balsam, Tolu

Basil, Exotic

Basil, French

Bay, West Indian

Benzoin

Bergamot

Birch, Sweet

Birch, White

Boldo Leaf

Borneol

Boronia

Broom, Spanish

Buchu

Cabreuva

Cade

Cajeput

Calamintha

Calamus

Camphor

Cananga

Caraway

Cardamon

Carrot Seed

Cascarilla Bark

Cassia

Cassie

Cedarwood, Atlas

Cedarwood, Texas

Cedarwood, Virginian

Celery Seed

Chamomile, German

Chamomile, Maroc

Chamomile, Roman

Champaca

Chervil

Cinnamon

Citronella

Clove

Coriander

Costus

Cubebs

Cumin

Cypress

Deertongue

Dill

Dorado Azul

Elecampane

Elemi

Eucalyptus, Blue Gum

Eucalyptus, Broad-leaved Peppermint

Eucalyptus, Lemon-Scented

Fennel

Fenugreek

Fir Needle, Silver

Fragonia

Frangipani

Frankincense

Galangal

Galbanum

Gardenia

Garlic

Geranium

Ginger

Goldenrod

Grapefruit

Greenland Moss

Grindelia

Guaiacwood

Ho Wood

Hops

Horseradish

Hyacinth

Hyssop

Immortelle

Jaborandi

Jasmine

Juniper

Labdanum

Laurel

Lavandin

Lavender, Spike

Lavender, True

Lemon

Lemongrass

Lime

Linaloe

Linden

Litsea Cubeba

Lotus

Lovage

Mandarin

Manuka

Marigold

Marjoram, Sweet

Mastic

Melilotus

Melissa

Mimosa

Mint, Cornmint

Mint, Peppermint

Mint, Spearmint

Mugwort

Mustard

Myrrh

Myrtle

Narcissus

Neroli

Niaouli

Nutmeg

Oakmoss

Onion

Opopanax

Orange, Bitter

Orange, Sweet

Oregano, Common

Oregano, Spanish

Orris

Osmanthus

Palmarosa

Parsley

Patchouli

Pennyroyal

Pepper, Black

Petitgrain

Pine, Dwarf

Pine, Longleaf

Pine, Scotch

Plai

Ravensara

Ravintsara

Rose, Cabbage

Rose, Damask

Rosemary

Rosewood

Rue

Sage, Clary

Sage, Common

Sage, Spanish

Sandalwood

Santolina

Sassafras

Savine

Savory, Summer

Savory, Winter

Schinus Molle

Snakeroot

Spikenard

Spruce, Hemlock

Styrax, Levant

Tagetes

Tansy

Tarragon

Tea Tree

Thuja

Thyme, Common

Tonka

Tuberose

Turmeric

Turpentine

Valerian

Vanilla

Verbena, Lemon

Vetiver

Violet

Wintergreen

Wormseed

Wormwood

Yarrow

Ylang Ylang

References

Bibliography

Useful Addresses

General Glossary

Therapeutic Index

Botanical Classification

Botanical Index

Acknowledgements

About the Author

About the Publisher

Woodcut from the title page of the Crete Herball, 1526

PREFACE

My own interest in essential oils and herbal remedies derives from the maternal side of my family who came from Finland, where home ‘simples’ retained popularity long after they had vanished from most parts of Britain. My Finnish grandmother knew a great deal about herbs and wild plants which she passed on to my mother, as she recalls:

Mama’s most important herb was parsley, which along with dill, marjoram, hops and others, were dried in bunches in the autumn, dangling at the ends of short lengths of cotton, all strung on a long length of thin rope stretching right across the kitchen stove. As scents are very evocative for remembering old things, I remember it so well – the strong and heady smell emanating from these herbs when they were hung up, and the stove was warm.

Later, as a biochemist, my mother became involved with the research of essential oils and plants, and helped inspire in me a fascination for herbs and the use of natural remedies. Without her early enthusiasm and guidance, I’m sure this book would never have been written.

In 1992 the first edition of this book was published in the UK. Since then it has been translated into many languages as well being released in several different formats, including an illustrated edition. Now, with this new 2014 edition, I am very glad to have the opportunity to update my original work. Apart from revising my original text, I have also included fifteen new oils, which have been chosen especially for their therapeutic potential: these include a few little-known essential oils.

In the twenty-year period since the original publication of The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils, the use of essential oils, together with the practice of aromatherapy in the West, has undergone a radical transformation. At the beginning of the 1990s, aromatherapy was still considered a fringe practice and the use of essential oils in the home was by no means widespread. However, as scientific trials and clinical research have continued to confirm the potentiality of essential oils, they have become increasingly respected within the medical arena. This has been accompanied by a steady increase of public interest in holistic therapies worldwide, and a sociological trend towards embracing all things ‘natural’ over the past two decades.

Nowadays, aromatherapy treatments are widely available, including in hospitals, while essential oils can be purchased on every high street. This change in attitude can only be of benefit, but it is worth considering that the commercialization of aromatherapy has brought its own dangers. Although essential oils are all wholly natural substances, they can be subject to adulteration, so it is important always to buy them from a reputable supplier (see here). It is also vital to check that any specific safety guidelines are followed with care at home. It is my hope that this new edition will bring fresh life to the multifaceted and multicultural study of essential oils and to the field of contemporary aromatherapy.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils is divided into two parts:

 Part I is a general introduction to aromatics, showing their changing role throughout history, from the ritual part they played in ancient civilizations, through medieval alchemy, to their modern-day applications in aromatherapy, herbalism and perfumery.

 Part II is a systematic survey of over 160 essential oils shown in alphabetical order according to the common name of the plants from which they are derived. Detailed information on each oil includes its botanical origins, herbal/folk tradition, odour characteristics, principal constituents and safety data, as well as its home and commercial uses.

This book can be approached in several ways:

1. It can be employed as a concise reference guide to a wide range of aromatic plants and oils, in the same way as a traditional herbal.

2. It can be used a self-help manual, showing how to use aromatherapy oils at home for the treatment of common complaints and to promote well-being.

3. It can be read from cover to cover as a comprehensive textbook on essential oils, shown in all their different aspects.

1. When using the book as a reference guide to essential oils, the name of the plant or oil may be found in the Botanical Index at the back of the book, where it is listed under:

a) its common name: for example, frankincense;

b) its Latin or botanical term: Boswellia carteri;

c) its essential oil trade name: olibanum;

d) or by its folk names: gum thus.

Other varieties, such as Indian frankincense (Boswellia serrata), may be found in the Botanical Classification section under their common family name ‘Burseraceae’, along with related species such as elemi, linaloe, myrrh and opopanax. Less common essential oils, such as blackcurrant (which is used mainly by the food industry), do not appear in the main body of the book, but are included in the Botanical Classification section under their common family name, in this case ‘Grossulariaceae’.

2. When using the book as a self-help manual on aromatherapy, it is best to consult the Therapeutic Index at the end of the book, where common complaints are grouped according to different parts of the body:

  Skin Care

  Circulation, Muscles and Joints

  Respiratory System

  Digestive System

  Genito-urinary and Endocrine Systems

  Immune System

  Nervous System

If for example, we have been working long hours at a desk and have developed a painful cramp in our neck, we should turn to the section on Circulation, Muscles and Joints where we find the heading ‘Muscular Cramp and Stiffness’. Of the essential oils which are listed, those shown in italics are generally considered to be the most useful and/or readily available, in this case allspice, lavender, marjoram, rosemary and black pepper. The choice of which oil to use depends on what is to hand, and on assessing the quality of each oil by consulting their entry in Part II of the book. Special attention should be paid to the safety data on each oil: both allspice and black pepper are known to be skin irritants if used in high concentration; rosemary and marjoram should be avoided during pregnancy; rosemary should not be used by epileptics at all. On the basis of our assessment, we may choose to use lavender, marjoram and a little black pepper which would make an excellent blend. Some of the principles behind blending oils can be found in Chapter 5, Creative Blending.

The various methods of application are indicated by the letters M, massage; C, compress; B, bath etc. Turn to Chapter 4, How to Use Essential Oils at Home, where you will find instructions on how to make up a massage oil or compress, and how many drops of oil to use in a bath. Further information on how essential oils work in specific cases can be found in Chapter 3, The Body – Actions and Applications.

3. Used as a comprehensive textbook, The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils provides a wealth of information about the essential oils themselves in all their various aspects, including their perfumery and flavouring applications. It shows the development of aromatics through history and the relationship between essential oils and other herbal products. It defines different kinds of aromatic materials and their methods of extraction, giving up-to-date areas of production. In addition, it includes information on their chemistry, pharmacology and safety levels. The ‘Actions’ ascribed to each plant refer either to the properties of the whole herb, or to parts of it, or to the essential oil. Difficult technical terms, mainly of a botanical or medical nature, are explained in the General Glossary at the end of the book.

However, since the therapeutic guidelines presented in the text are aimed primarily at the lay person without medical qualifications, the section dealing with the aromatherapy application of essential oils at home is limited to the treatment of common complaints only: Although there is a great deal of research being carried out at present into the potential uses of essential oils in the treatment of diseases such as cancer, AIDS and psychological disorders, these discussions fall beyond the scope of this book. References to the medical and folk use of particular plants in herbal medicine and their actions are intended to provide background information only, and are not intended as a guide for self-treatment.

Part I AN INTRODUCTION TO AROMATICS

1. HISTORICAL ROOTS
Natural Plant Origins

When we peel an orange, walk through a rose garden or rub a sprig of lavender between our fingers, we are all aware of the special scent of that plant. But what exactly is it that we can smell? Generally speaking, it is essential oils which give spices and herbs their specific scent and flavour, flowers and fruit their perfume. The essential oil in the orange peel is not difficult to identify; it is found in such profusion that it actually squirts out when we peel it. The minute droplets of oil which are contained in tiny pockets or glandular cells in the outer peel are very volatile, that is, they easily evaporate, infusing the air with their characteristic aroma.

A Herbalist’s Garden; Le Jardin de Santé, 1539

But not all plants contain essential or volatile oils in such profusion. The aromatic content in the flowers of the rose is so very small that it takes one ton of petals to produce 300g of rose oil. It is not fully understood why some plants contain essential oils and others not. It is clear that the aromatic quality of the oils plays a role in the attraction or repulsion of certain insects or animals. It has also been suggested that they play an important part in the transpiration and life processes of the plant itself, and as a protection against disease. They have been described as the ‘hormone’ or ‘life-blood’ of a plant, due to their highly concentrated and essential nature.

Aromatic oils can be found in all the various parts of a plant, including the seeds, bark, root, leaves, flowers, wood, balsam and resin. The bitter orange tree, for example, yields orange oil from the fruit peel, petitgrain from the leaves and twigs, and neroli oil from the orange blossoms. The clove tree produces different types of essential oil from its buds, stalks and leaves, whereas the Scotch pine yields distinct oils from its needles, wood and resin. The wide range of aromatic materials obtained from natural sources and the art of their extraction and use has developed slowly over the course of time, but its origins reach back to the very heart of the earliest civilizations.

Ancient Civilizations

Aromatic plants and oils have been used for thousands of years, as incense, perfumes and cosmetics and for their medical and culinary applications. Their ritual use constituted an integral part of the tradition in most early cultures, where their religious and therapeutic roles became inextricably intertwined. This type of practice is still in evidence: for example, in the East, sprigs of juniper are burnt in Tibetan temples as a form of purification; in the West, frankincense is used during the Roman Catholic mass.

In the ancient civilizations, perfumes were used as an expression of the animist and cosmic conceptions, responding above all to the exigencies of a cult … associated at first with theophanies and incantations, the perfumes made by fumigation, libation and ablution, grew directly out of the ritual, and became an element in the art of therapy.¹

The Vedic literature of India dating from around 2000 BC, lists over 700 substances including cinnamon, spikenard, ginger, myrrh, coriander and sandalwood. But aromatics were considered to be more than just perfumes; in the Indo-Aryan tongue, ‘atar’ means smoke, wind, odour and essence, and the Rig Veda codifies their use for both liturgical and therapeutic purposes. The manner in which it is written reflects a spiritual and philosophical outlook, in which humanity is seen as a part of nature, and the handling of herbs as a sacred task: ‘Simples, you who have existed for so long, even before the Gods were born, I want to understand your seven hundred secrets! … Come, you wise plants, heal this patient for me’.² Their understanding of plant lore developed into the traditional Indian or Ayurvedic system of medicine, which has enjoyed an unbroken transmission up to the present day.

The Chinese also have an ancient herbal tradition which accompanies the practice of acupuncture, the earliest records being in the Yellow Emperor’s Book of Internal Medicine dating from more than 2000 years BC. Among the remedies are several aromatics such as opium and ginger which, apart from their therapeutic applications, are known to have been utilized for religious purposes since the earliest times, as in the Li-ki and Tcheou-Li ceremonies. Borneo camphor is still used extensively in China today for ritual purposes. But perhaps the most famous and richest associations concerning the first aromatic materials are those surrounding the ancient Egyptian civilization. Papyrus manuscripts dating back to the reign of Khufu, around 2800 BC, record the use of many medicinal herbs, while another papyrus written about 2000 BC speaks of ‘fine oils and choice perfumes, and the incense of temples, whereby every god is gladdened’.³ Aromatic gums and oils such as cedar and myrrh were employed in the embalming process, the remains of which are still detectable thousands of years later, along with traces of scented unguents and oils such as styrax and frankincense contained in a number of ornate jars and cosmetic pots found in the tombs. The complete iconography covering the process of preparation for such oils, balsams and fermented liqueurs was preserved in stone inscriptions by the people of the Nile valley. The Egyptians were, in fact, experts of cosmetology and renowned for their herbal preparations and ointments. One such remedy was known as ‘kyphi’; a mixture of sixteen different ingredients which could be used as an incense, a perfume or taken internally as a medicine. It was said to be antiseptic, balsamic, soothing and an antidote to poison which, according to Plutarch, could lull one to sleep, allay anxieties and brighten dreams.

Treasures from the East

Natural aromatics and perfume materials constituted one of the earliest trade items of the ancient world, being rare and highly prized. When the Jewish people began their exodus from Egypt to Israel around 1240 BC, they took with them many precious gums and oils together with knowledge of their use. On their journey, according to the Book of Exodus, the Lord transmitted to Moses the formula for a special anointing oil, which included myrrh, cinnamon, calamus, cassia and olive oil among its ingredients. This holy oil was used to consecrate Aaron and his sons into priesthood, which continued from generation to generation. Frankincense and myrrh, as treasures from the East, were offered to Jesus at his birth.

The Phoenician merchants also exported their scented oils and gums to the Arabian peninsula and gradually throughout the Mediterranean region, particularly Greece and Rome. They introduced the West to the riches of the Orient: they brought camphor from China, cinnamon from India, gums from Arabia and rose from Syria, always ensuring that they kept their trading routes a closely guarded secret.

The Greeks especially learnt a great deal from the Egyptians; Herodotus and Democrates, who visited Egypt during the fifth century BC, were later to transmit what they had learnt about perfumery and natural therapeutics. Herodotus was the first to record the method of distillation of turpentine, in about 425 BC, as well as furnishing the first information about perfumes and numerous other details regarding odorous materials. Dioscorides made a detailed study of the sources and uses of plants and aromatics employed by the Greeks and Romans which he compiled into a five-volume materia medica, known as the Herbarius.

‘Lentisco del Peru’ (Mastic Tree) from Durante’s Herbario Nuovo, 1585. Gums and oils were regarded as highly prized trade items throughout the Mediterranean region

Hippocrates who was born in Greece about 460 BC and universally revered as the ‘father of medicine’, also prescribed perfumed fumigations and fomentations; indeed ‘from Greek medical practice there is derived the term ‘iatralypte’, from the physician who cured by the use of aromatic unctions’.⁴ One of the most famous of these Greek preparations, made from myrrh, cinnamon and cassia, was called ‘megaleion’ after its creator Megallus. Like the Egyptian ‘kyphi’, it could be used both as a perfume and as a remedy for skin inflammation and battle wounds.

The Romans were even more lavish in their use of perfumes and aromatic oils than the Greeks. They used three kinds of perfumes: ‘ladysmata’, solid unguents; ‘stymmata’, scented oils; and ‘diapasmata’, powdered perfumes. They were used to fragrance their hair, their bodies, their clothes and beds; large amounts of scented oil were used for massage after bathing. With the fall of the Roman Empire and the advent of Christianity, many of the Roman physicians fled to Constantinople taking the books of Galen, Hippocrates and Dioscorides with them. These great Graeco-Roman works were translated into Persian, Arabic and other languages, and at the end of the Byzantine Empire, their knowledge passed on to the Arab world. Europe, meanwhile, entered the so-called Dark Ages.

Alchemy

Between the seventh and thirteenth centuries the Arabs produced many great men of science, among them Avicenna (AD 980‒1037). This highly gifted physician and scholar wrote over a hundred books in his lifetime, one of which was devoted entirely to the flower most cherished by Islam, the rose. Among his discoveries, he has been credited with the invention of the refrigerated coil, a breakthrough in the art of distillation, which he used to produce pure essential oils and aromatic water. However, in 1975 Dr Paolo Rovesti led an archaeological expedition to Pakistan to investigate the ancient Indus Valley civilization. There, in the museum of Taxila at the foot of the Himalayas, he found a perfectly preserved distillation apparatus made of terracotta. The presence of perfume containers also exhibited in the museum dating from the same period, about 3000 BC, confirmed its use for the preparation of aromatic oils. This discovery suggests that the Arabs simply revived or improved upon a process that had been known for over 4000 years!

Rose water became one of the most popular scents and came to the West at the time of the Crusades, along with other exotic essences, and the method of distillation. By the thirteenth century, the ‘perfumes of Arabia’ were famous throughout Europe. During the Middle Ages, floors were strewn with aromatic plants and little herbal bouquets were carried as a protection against plague and other infectious diseases. Gradually the Europeans, lacking the gum-yielding trees of the Orient, began to experiment with their own native herbs such as lavender, sage and rosemary. By the sixteenth century lavender water and essential oils known as ‘chymical oils’ could be bought from the apothecary, and, following the invention of printing, the period 1470 to 1670 saw the publication of many herbals such as the Crete Herball published in 1526, some of which included illustrations of the retorts and stills used for the extraction of volatile oils.

In the hands of the philosophers, the art of distillation was employed in the practice of alchemy, the hermetic pursuit dedicated to the transformation of base metals into gold, the gross into the subtle. It was primarily a religious quest in which the various stages of the distillation process were equated with stages of an inner psychic transmutation, ‘dissolution and coagulation’: separation (black, lead), extraction (white, quicksilver), fusion (red, sulphur) and finally sublimation (gold or ‘lapis’). In the same way that aromatic material could be distilled to produce a pure and potent essence, so could the human emotions be refined and concentrated to reveal their valuable fruit, or true nature. In this context, volatile oils can be equated with the purified human psyche or ‘quintessence’ of the alchemists, being an emanation of matter and manifestation of spirit, mediator between the two realms.

Alchemy was the bridge across which the rich symbolism of the ancient world – Arab, Greek, Gnostic – was transported into our own era … thus symbolism fell from the rarefied heights into the melting-pot, and began to be tested in a continuous, dynamic interaction with the findings of chemistry.⁵

The Scientific Revolution

Throughout the Renaissance period, aromatic materials filled the pharmacopoeias which for many centuries remained the main protection against epidemics. Over the next few centuries the medicinal properties and applications of increasing numbers of new essential oils were analysed and recorded by the pharmacists. The list included both well-established aromatics such as cedar, cinnamon, frankincense, juniper, rose, rosemary, lavender and sage, but also essences like artemisia, cajeput, chervil, orange flower, valerian and pine.

The perfumery and distillation industries attracted illustrious names of the day and in the northern countries of Europe, especially at Grassein France, flourishing commercial enterprises sprang up. By the end of the seventeenth century, the profession of perfumery broke away from the allied fields, and a distinction was made between perfumes and the aromatics that had become the domain of the apothecary.

Alchemy gave way to technical chemistry, and with it went the interest in the inter-relatedness of matter and spirit, and the interdependence of medicine and psychology. There developed the idea of combating speculation with logic and deductive reason. With the scientific revolution of the early nineteenth century, chemists were able to identify for the first time the various constituents of the oils, and give them specific names such as ‘geraniol’, ‘citronellol’ and ‘cineol’. In the Yearbook of Pharmacy and Transactions of the British Pharmaceutical Conference in 1907, we find for example:

A pilea of undetermined botanical species has yielded a white essential oil with an odour of turpentine … A small amount of pinene was detected but its other constituents have not yet been identified. This oil is of interest as being the first instance of an essential oil derived from the family Uricaceae.⁶

It is ironic that this enthusiastic research laid the ground for the development of the oils’ synthetic counterparts, and the growth of the modern drug industry. Herbal medicine and aromatic remedies lost their credibility as methods of treatment went out of the hands of the individual and into those of professionals. By the middle of the twentieth century, the role of essential oils had been reduced almost entirely to their employment in perfumes, cosmetics and foodstuffs.

2. AROMATHERAPY AND HERBALISM
The Birth of Aromatherapy

The term ‘aromatherapy’ was first coined in 1928 by Gattefossé, a French chemist working in his family’s perfumier business. He became fascinated with the therapeutic possibilities of the oils after discovering by accident that lavender was able to rapidly heal a severe burn on his hand and help prevent scarring. He also found that many of the essential oils were more effective in their totality than their synthetic substitutes or their isolated active ingredients. As early as 1904 Cuthbert Hall had shown that the antiseptic power of eucalyptus oil in its natural form was stronger than its isolated main active constituent, ‘eucalyptol’ or ‘cineol’.

Another French doctor and scientist, Dr Jean Valnet, used essential oils as part of his programme by which he was able to successfully treat specific medical and psychiatric disorders, the results of which were published in 1964 as Aromatherapie.

The work of Valnet was studied by Madame Marguerite Maury who applied his research to her beauty therapy, in which she aimed to revitalize her clients by creating a ‘strictly personal aromatic complex which she adapted to the subject’s temperament and particular health problems. Hence, going far beyond any simple aesthetic objective, perfumed essences when correctly selected, represent many medicinal agents.’⁷

In some respects, the word ‘aromatherapy’ can be misleading because it suggests that it is a form of healing which works exclusively through our sense of smell, and on the emotions. This is not the case for, apart from its scent, each essential oil has an individual combination of constituents which interacts with the body’s chemistry in a direct manner, which then in turn affects certain organs or systems as a whole. For example, when the oils are used externally in the form of a massage treatment, they are easily absorbed via the skin and transported throughout the body. This can be demonstrated by rubbing a clove of garlic on the soles of the feet; the volatile oil content will be taken into the blood and the odour will appear on the breath a little while later. It is interesting to note that different essential oils are absorbed through the skin at varying rates, for example:

Turpentine: 20 mins

Eucalyptus and thyme: 20–40 mins

Anise, bergamot and lemon: 40–60 mins

Citronella, pine, lavender and geranium: 60–80 mins

Coriander, rue and peppermint: 100–120 mins

It is therefore important to recognize that essential oils have three distinct modes of action with regard to how they inter-relate with the human body: pharmacological, physiological and psychological. The pharmacological effect is concerned with the chemical changes which take place when an essential oil enters the bloodstream and reacts with the hormones and enzymes etc; the physiological mode is concerned with the way in which an essential oil affects the systems of the body, whether they are sedated or stimulated, etc; the psychological effect takes place when an essence is inhaled, and an individual responds to its odour. With relation to the first two points, aromatherapy has a great deal in common with the tradition of medical herbalism or phytotherapy – in other words, it is not simply the aroma which is important but also the chemical interaction between the oils and the body, and the physical changes which are brought about.

Herbal Medicine

The practice of aromatherapy could be seen as part of the larger field of herbal medicine, since the essential oil is only one of many ways in which a plant can be prepared as a remedy. Since all essential oils are derived directly from plants, it can be valuable to see them within a botanical context rather than as isolated products. In some ways the use of aromatic oils for therapeutic purposes benefits from being placed within a herbal context not only because it gives us further insight into their characteristics, but because the two forms of therapy are not synonymous, but complementary.

Growing and storing herbs: the woman is scenting the linen chest; from Das Kerfiterbuch oder Herbarius, 1534

Although most plants which yield essential oils are also used in medical herbalism, it is important to distinguish the therapeutic qualities of a particular oil from those of the herb taken as a whole or prepared in another manner. German chamomile, for example, is used extensively in the form of a herbal preparation such as an infusion, tincture or decoction, apart from being utilized for its volatile oil. Chamazulene, a major constituent of the oil, helps to account for the herb’s age-old reputation as a general relaxant and soothing skin care remedy, due to its pain-relieving, antispasmodic, wound-healing and anti-inflammatory activities. For the treatment of nervous conditions, insomnia and dermal irritation or disease, the essential oil is both useful and effective. But although the aromatic principle of the plant plays a central role in its overall character, the herb also contains a bitter component (anthemic acid), tannins (tannic acid), mucilage and a glycoside among other things. The overall effect of the herb is the result of the action of all its pharmacologically active constituents which in the case of chamomile or Matricaria includes the astringency of the tannins and the stimulation of the bitters. The volatile oil is, of course, less concentrated in the form of an infusion, tincture or decoction, the potency of the oil is reduced (and inherently the safety margin increased), thus making the herbal preparation more suited to internal use.

Similarly with peppermint. Whilst the oil is eminently suited to the treatment of respiratory conditions as an inhalant, due in particular to its antispasmodic and antiseptic actions, for the longer-term treatment of digestive disorders it is better to use extracts from the whole herb, where the action of the volatile oil is supported by the presence of bitters and tannins. In addition, in herbal medicine, the effect of one herb is usually supported and backed up by combining it with others.

Neither is it correct to assume that the essential oil is always the most active or therapeutically useful part of a plant. For example, although meadowsweet contains an essential oil outstanding in its antiseptic strength (according to Cavel,⁸ 3.3cc of meadowsweet essence renders infertile 1000cc of microbic cultures in sewage, compared to 5.6cc of phenol per 1000cc), it also possesses several other valuable components, notably salicylic glycosides which are characterized by their excellent pain-relieving and anti-inflammatory qualities. Indeed, the familiar drug aspirin, being derived from salicylic acid, is named after this herb, its old country name being ‘spiraea’.

The kernels of the (bitter and sweet) almond tree are used to produce a fixed oil commonly known as sweet almond oil, which has a great many cosmetic uses. The kernels from the bitter almond tree, which are used to produce the essential oil which gives marzipan its characteristic taste, also contain cyanide, the well-known poison, in its unrefined form. This shows that there can be a great difference in the properties of a plant, even the same part of a plant, depending upon how it has been prepared.

Therapeutic Guidelines

As a general rule which is in line with the present-day aromatherapy ‘code of practice’, it is best to use essential oils as external remedies only. This is mainly due to the high concentration of the oils and the potential irritation or damage that they can cause to the mucous membranes and delicate stomach lining in undiluted form. There even seems to be some kind of natural order in this scheme, in that volatile oils mix readily with oils and ointments suited to external application, which are absorbed readily through the skin and vaporize easily for inhalation. When inhaled, they can affect an individual’s mood or feelings, and at the same time cause physiological changes in the body. Indeed, in a Japanese experiment carried out in 1963, it was found that the effects of essential oils on the digestive system were likely to be stronger if they were inhaled than if they were ingested. Herbs, on the other hand, yield up many of their qualities to water and alcohol which are appropriate for internal use but, lacking the concentrated aromatic element, they do not have the same subtle effects on the mind and emotions.

These are only superficial guidelines, for there are always exceptions to the rule. Plantain, for example, is an excellent wound-healing herb valuable for external use, although it does not contain any essential oil. Nor can we ignore the fact that a great many aromatic oils are used for flavouring our food and beverages and are consumed daily in minute amounts. Peppermint oil, for example, is used in a wide variety of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, confectionery and prepared savoury foods, although the highest average use does not exceed 0.104 per cent. The mint oils, which include spearmint and cornmint, are also used extensively by the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries in products such as toothpaste, cough and cold remedies, and as fragrance components in soaps, creams, lotions, as well as colognes and perfumes. In addition, cornmint is frequently used as the starting material for the production of ‘menthol’ for use in the drug industry.

It can be seen that the use of essential oils covers a wide and varied spectrum. On the one hand they share the holistic qualities of natural plant remedies, although it is true that some herbalists view essential oils in much the same light as they regard synthetic drugs, being a ‘part’ of the whole, rather than the entire herb. On the other hand, they play an active role in the modern pharmaceutical industry, either in their entirety or in the form of isolated constituents such as ‘phenol’ or ‘menthol’.

It is not the aim of this book to glorify natural remedies (some of which are in fact highly toxic) at the expense of scientific progress, nor to uphold the principles of our present-day drug-orientated culture, but simply to provide information about the oils themselves in their multifaceted nature.

Safety Precautions

Safety Data: Always check with specific SAFETY DATA before using a new oil, especially with regard to toxicity levels, phototoxicity, dermal irritation and sensitization.

Contra-Indications: Take note of any contra-indications when using particular oils. For example, fennel, hyssop and sage should be avoided by epileptics; clary sage should not be used while drinking alcohol; hops should not be used by anyone suffering from depression.

High Blood Pressure: Avoid the following oils in cases of high blood pressure: hyssop, rosemary, sage (all types) and thyme.

Homoeopathy: Homoeopathic treatment is not compatible with the following oils: black pepper, camphor, eucalyptus and the mint oils.

Pregnancy: During pregnancy use essential oils in half the usual stated amount. Take note of those oils which are contra-indicated in pregnancy.

Babies And Children: Use with care, in accordance with age.

 Babies (0–12 months) – use 1 drop of lavender, rose, chamomile or mandarin diluted in 1 tsp base oil for massage or bathing.

 Infants (1–5 years) – use 2–3 drops of ‘safe’ essential oils (non-toxic and non irritant to the skin), diluted in 1 tsp base oil for massage or bathing.

 Children (6–12 years) – use as for adults but in half the stated amount. Teenagers (over 12 years) – use as directed for adults.

3. THE BODY – ACTIONS AND APPLICATIONS
How Essential Oils Work

The therapeutic potential of essential oils, like other plant-derived remedies, has yet to be fully realized. Although numerous medical herbs have been utilized since antiquity, many of which have been exploited to provide the biologically active compounds which form the basis for most of our modern drugs (such as quinine and cocaine), there is still a great deal to be learnt about their precise pharmacology. This is particularly true of aromatic oils, which by their very nature have such a concentrated yet multifaceted make up. In addition, ‘only a small proportion of the world flora has been examined for pharmacologically active compounds, but with the ever-increasing danger of plants becoming extinct, there is a real risk that many important plant sources may be lost’.⁹

Modern research has largely confirmed the traditionally held beliefs regarding the therapeutic uses of particular plants, although with time the terminology has changed. A herb such as basil, at one time described as a ‘protection against evil’, or ‘good for the heart’ whose scent ‘taketh away sorrowfulness’, may in modern usage be described as an excellent prophylactic, nerve tonic and antidepressant. Like herbal remedies, an essential oil can cover a wide field of activities; indeed the same herb or oil (such as Melissa) can stimulate certain systems of the body while sedating or relaxing others. In order to gain a clearer understanding of the way essential oils work, and some of their particular areas of activity, it may be helpful to take an overall view of the systems of the human body.

The Skin

Skin problems are often the surface manifestation of a deeper condition, such as a build-up of toxins in the blood, hormonal imbalance or nervous and emotional difficulties. In this area the versatility of essential oils is particularly valuable because they are able to combat such complaints on a variety of levels. Since essential oils are soluble in oil and alcohol and impart their scent to water, they provide the ideal ingredient for cosmetics and general skin care as well as for the treatment of specific diseases.

Within this context the following activities are of particular benefit:

 Antiseptics for cuts, insect bites, spots, etc; for example, thyme, sage, eucalyptus, tea tree, clove, lavender and lemon.

 Anti-inflammatory oils for eczema, infected wounds, bumps, bruises, etc; for example, German and Roman chamomile, lavender and yarrow.

 Fungicidal oils for athlete’s foot, candida, ringworm, etc; for example, lavender, tea tree, myrrh, patchouli and sweet marjoram.

 Granulation stimulating or cicatrizing (healing) agents for burns, cuts, scars, stretch marks, etc; for example, lavender, chamomile, rose, neroli, frankincense and geranium.

 Deodorants for excessive perspiration, cleaning wounds, etc; for example, bergamot, lavender, thyme, juniper, cypress, Spanish sage, lemongrass.

 Insect repellents and parasiticides for lice, fleas, scabies, ticks, mosquitos, ants, moths, etc; for example, spike lavender, garlic, geranium, citronella, eucalyptus, clove, camphor, Atlas cedarwood.

The Circulation, Muscles and Joints

Essential oils are easily absorbed via the skin and mucosa into the bloodstream, affecting the nature of the circulation as a whole. Oils with a rubefacient or warming effect not only cause a better local blood circulation, but also influence the inner organs. They bring a warmth and glow to the surface of the skin and can provide considerable pain relief through their analgesic or numbing effect. Such oils can relieve local inflammation by setting free mediators in the body which in turn cause the blood vessels to expand, so the blood is able to move more quickly and the swelling is reduced. Some oils like hyssop tend to have a balancing or regulating effect on the circulatory system as a whole, reducing the blood pressure if it is too high or stimulating the system if it is sluggish.

 Hypotensives for high blood pressure, palpitations, stress, etc; for example, sweet marjoram, ylang ylang, lavender, lemon.

 Hypertensives for poor circulation, chilblains, listlessness, etc; for example, rosemary, spike lavender, eucalyptus, peppermint, thyme.

 Rubefacients for rheumatism of the joints, muscular stiffness, sciatica, lumbago, etc; for example, black pepper, juniper, rosemary, camphor, sweet marjoram.

 Depurative or antitoxic agents for arthritis, gout, congestion, skin eruptions, etc; for example, juniper, lemon, fennel, lovage.

 Lymphatic stimulants for cellulitis, obesity, water retention, etc; for example, grapefruit, lime, fennel, lemon, mandarin, white birch.

 Circulatory tonics and astringents for swellings, inflammations, varicose veins, etc; for example, cypress, yarrow, lemon.

The Respiratory System

Nose, throat and lung infections are conditions which respond very well to treatment with essential oils. Inhalation is a very effective way of utilizing their properties, for ‘although after arriving in the bronchi the main part will be exhaled directly by the lungs, they cause an increased bronchial secretion (a protective reaction) which is beneficial for many respiratory ailments’.¹⁰ By inhalation they are absorbed into the blood circulation even faster than by oral application. In addition, most essential oils which are absorbed from the stomach are then excreted via the lungs, only a small part in the urine.

 Expectorants for catarrh, sinusitis, coughs, bronchitis, etc; for example, eucalyptus, pine, thyme, myrrh, sandalwood, fennel.

 Antispasmodics for colic, asthma, dry cough, whooping cough, etc; for example, hyssop, cypress, Atlas cedarwood, bergamot, chamomile, cajeput.

 Balsamic agents for colds, chills, congestion, etc; for example, benzoin, frankincense, Tolu balsam, Peru balsam, myrrh.

 Antiseptics for ’flu, colds, sore throat, tonsillitis, gingivitis, etc; for example, thyme, sage, eucalyptus, hyssop, pine, cajeput, tea tree, borneol.

The Digestive System

Although it is not recommended that essential oils be taken orally, they can by external application effect certain changes in the digestive processes. However, whereas herbal medicine has many remedies at its disposal for a wide variety of stomach, gall bladder and liver complaints, such as dandelion, marshmallow, chamomile and meadowsweet, much of their effectiveness is based on a combination of aromatic components, together with bitters, tannins and mucilage, which are absent in the volatile oil alone. The external application of essential oils in problems of the digestive system though effective, is consequently somewhat limited compared to the internal use of herbal remedies.

 Antispasmodics for spasm, pain, indigestion, etc; for example, chamomile, caraway, fennel, orange, peppermint, Melissa, aniseed, cinnamon.

 Carminatives and stomachics for flatulent dyspepsia, aerophagia, nausea, etc; for example, angelica, basil, fennel, chamomile, peppermint, mandarin.

 Cholagogues for increasing the flow of bile and stimulating the gall bladder; for example, caraway, lavender, peppermint and borneol.

 Hepatics for liver congestion, jaundice, ere; for example, lemon, lime, rosemary, peppermint.

 Aperitifs for loss of appetite, anorexia, etc; for example, aniseed, angelica, orange, ginger, garlic.

The Genito-urinary and Endocrine Systems

Like the digestive system, the reproductive organs can be affected by absorption via the skin into the bloodstream, as well as through hormonal changes. Some essential oils such as rose and jasmine have an affinity for the reproductive system having a general strengthening effect as well as helping to combat specific complaints like menstrual problems, genital infections and sexual difficulties. Other oils contain plant hormones which mimic the corresponding human hormones; oils such as hops, sage and fennel have been found to contain a form of oestrogen that influences the menstrual cycle, lactation and secondary sexual characteristics. Oestrogen also helps maintain a healthy circulation, good muscle and skin tone and strong bones in both men and women.

Other essential oils are known to influence the levels of hormone secretion of other glands, including the thyroid gland (which governs growth and metabolism), the adrenal medulla (which deals with stress reactions) and the adrenal cortex (which governs several processes including the production of oestrogen and androgen, the male sex hormone).

 Antispasmodics for menstrual cramp (dysmenorrhoea), labour pains, etc; for example, sweet marjoram, chamomile, clary sage, jasmine, lavender.

 Emmenagogues for scanty periods, lack of periods (amenorrhoea), etc; for example, chamomile, fennel, hyssop, juniper, sweet marjoram, peppermint.

 Uterine tonics and regulators for pregnancy, excess menstruation (menorrhagia), PMT, etc; for example, clary sage, jasmine, rose, myrrh, frankincense, Melissa.

 Antiseptic and bactericidal agents for leucorrhoea, vaginal pruritis, thrush, etc; for example, bergamot, chamomile, myrrh, rose, tea tree.

 Galactagogues for increasing milk flow; for example, fennel, jasmine, anise, lemongrass (sage, mint and parsley reduce it).

 Aphrodisiacs for impotence and frigidity, etc; for example, black pepper, cardamon, clary sage, neroli, jasmine, rose, sandalwood, patchouli, ylang ylang.

 Anaphrodisiacs for reducing sexual desire; for example, sweet marjoram, camphor.

 Adrenal stimulants for anxiety, stress-related conditions, etc; for example, basil, geranium, rosemary, borneol, sage, pine, savory.

With regard to the kidneys, bladder and urinary system in general, it is difficult to bring about results simply by using essential oils. According to recent research, ‘the diuretic effects of essential oils are virtually nonexistent’.¹¹ In addition, the traditional diuretic agents such as juniper, lovage and parsley seed are considered unsuitable as essential oils for internal use due to toxicity levels and possible kidney damage; herb teas of fennel, dandelion or chamomile provide a milder alternative. Bathing and using a douche can help control urinary infections, especially when they are associated with nervous or stress-related symptoms.

 Urinary antiseptics for cystitis, urethritis, etc; for example, bergamot, chamomile, tea tree, sandalwood.

‘Lerne the hygh and mervelous vertue of herbes … use the effectes with reverence, and give thankes to the maker celestyall’; from Braunsweig’s The Vertuose Bake of Distyllacyon of the Waters of all Maner of Herbes, 1527

The Immune System

Virtually all essential oils have bactericidal properties and by promoting the production of white blood cells, they can help prevent and treat infectious illness. It is these properties that gave aromatic herbs and oils such high repute with regard to infections such as malaria and typhoid in the tropics and epidemics of plague in the Middle Ages. ‘People who use essential oils all the time … mostly have a high level of resistance to illness, catching fewer colds, etc, than average and recovering quickly if they do.’¹²

 Bactericidal and antiviral agents (prophylactics) for protection against colds, ’flu, etc; for example, tea tree, cajeput, niaouli, basil, lavender, eucalyptus, bergamot, camphor, clove, rosemary.

 Febrifuge agents for reducing fever and temperature, etc; for example, angelica, basil, peppermint, thyme, sage, lemon, eucalyptus, tea tree.

 Sudorifics and diaphoretics for promoting sweating, eliminating toxins, etc; for example, rosemary, thyme, hyssop, chamomile.

The Nervous System

Recent research shows that the properties of many oils correspond to the traditionally held views: chamomile, bergamot, sandalwood, lavender and sweet marjoram were found to have a sedative effect on the central nervous system; jasmine, peppermint, basil, clove and ylang ylang were found to have a stimulating effect. Neroli was found to be stimulating and lemon to be sedating, contrary to popular belief. Some oils are known to be ‘adaptogens’, that is, they have a balancing or normalizing effect on the systems of the body: geranium and rosewood were either sedative or stimulating according to each situation and individual.

Words like ‘relaxing’ and ‘uplifting’ often have more to do with odour description and emotional response rather than physiological effect – although the two are related. Consequently, oils such as bergamot, Melissa or lemon can be sedating to the nervous system, but reviving to the ‘spirit’. Conversely, oils such as jasmine, ylang ylang and neroli can be nerve stimulants yet soothing and relaxing on a more subtle emotional level.

 Sedatives for nervous tension, stress, insomnia, etc; for example, chamomile, bergamot, sandalwood, lavender, sweet marjoram, Melissa, hops, valerian, lemon.

 Stimulants for convalescence, lack of strength, nervous fatigue, etc; for example, basil, jasmine, peppermint, ylang ylang, neroli, angelica, rosemary.

 Nerve tonics (nervines) for strengthening the nervous system as a whole; for example, chamomile, clary sage, juniper, lavender, marjoram, rosemary.

The Mind

This area is perhaps the most discussed and least understood area of activity regarding essential oils. There is no doubt that throughout history aromatic oils have been used for their power to influence the emotions and states of mind: this is the basis for their employment as incense for religious and ritualistic purposes. It is already known that two olfactory nerve tracts run right into the limbic system (the part of the brain concerned with memory and emotion), which means that scents can evoke an immediate and powerful response which defies rational analysis.

Recent research at Warwick University, England, and Toho University, Japan, has aimed to put these traditionally held beliefs and applications into a scientific context. They came up with two types of reaction to odours which they called a ‘hard-wired’ response or a ‘soft-wired’ response: the first type is ingrained from before birth and is purely instinctual; the second is learned or acquired later on. The first type may be, for example, the scent of the mother’s skin or a sexual signal; the second might be the fragrance of honeysuckle, reminiscent of a childhood garden.

A discourse on the Virtues of the Rose; from Champier’s Rosa Gallica, 1514

But to what extent is the effect of a particular oil dependent upon its chemical or physiological make-up, and to what extent does it rely upon a belief or an association? In dealing with the psychological or emotional responses to the scent of a particular oil, this kind of classification becomes much more difficult: surely here it is more appropriate to consider the temperament of each individual within a given context, rather than predict a set reaction.

At the Psychology of Perfumery Conference 1991, it was generally agreed that ‘while pharmacological effects may be very similar from one person to another, psychological effects are bound to be different’.¹³ The effect of an odour on a human being was dependent on a variety of factors which include:

1. how the odour was applied,

2. how much was applied,

3. the circumstances in which it was applied,

4. the person to whom it was applied (age, sex, personality type),

5. what mood they were in to start with,

6. what previous associations they may have with the odour,

7. anosmia, or inability to smell (certain scents).

We must, therefore, seek odoriferous substances which present affinities with the human being we intend to treat, those which will compensate for his deficiencies and those which will make his faculties blossom. It was by searching for this remedy that we encountered the individual prescription (IP), which on all points represents the identity of the individual.¹⁴

When we begin to consider individual needs, essential oils start to demonstrate the versatility of their nature. The rose is a good example; a flower which has been associated with beauty, love, and spiritual depth in folklore and religious texts (especially Sufi) but which also has a long tradition of usage for physical conditions such as skin problems, regulating the female cycle, promoting the circulation, purifying the blood and as a heart tonic. When we smell the fragrance of the rose, it carries all these rich associations with it, affecting our mind and body simultaneously, where the effect is moulded by personal experience.

‘The general trend of modern thought is strictly dualistic; psychic and somatic happenings are treated as mutually exclusive rather than inclusive.’¹⁵ Trying to disentangle spirit from matter leads nowhere; as David Hoffman says, ‘Mind and Matter are mutually enfolded projections of a higher reality which is neither matter nor consciousness.’¹⁶

4. HOW TO USE ESSENTIAL OILS AT HOME

Essential oils can be used simply and effectively at home in a variety of ways, both for their scent and for their cosmetic and medicinal qualities. They can be used as perfumes and to revive pot pourris; they can be added to the bath and used to make individual beauty preparations. They can also be employed in the treatment of minor first-aid cases and to help prevent and relieve many common complaints such as headaches, colds, period pains and aching muscles (see Therapeutic Index). They should always be stored in a cool place in dark bottles to protect them from photo-oxidation with as little contact with air as possible, and kept out of reach of children.

Some home uses for many essential oils can be found in the main body of the book, but the following list suggests a few possible uses for individual essences and shows some of the ways in which they can be applied.

Massage

This is the method favoured by professional aromatherapists, who usually carry out a full body massage. Specific essential oils are chosen to suit the condition and temperament of the patient, and blended with a base oil, such as sweet almond oil or grapeseed oil.

The essential oil content in a blend should usually be between 1 per cent and 3 per cent depending on the type of disorder. As a general rule, physical ailments like rheumatism or indigestion demand a stronger concentration than the more emotional or nervous conditions. A rough guideline is to say that 20 drops of essential oil is equivalent to one millilitre, so to make a blend it is possible to use the following proportions:

Essential oil | Base oil
20 to 60 drops | 100ml
7 to 25 drops | 25ml
3 to 5 drops | 1 tsp

Massage is a relaxing and nourishing experience in itself, not least because of the unspoken communication based on touch, but it also ensures that the oils are effectively absorbed through the skin and into the bloodstream. For general well-being it is beneficial to practise self-massage on specific areas of the body, especially concentrating on the feet and hands. It is also useful to rub those particular parts of the body that are causing discomfort; for example peppermint (in dilution) can be rubbed on the stomach in a clockwise direction to ease indigestion; marjoram can help to relax the neck and shoulders if they are stiff.

Skin Oils and Lotions

The essential oils are prepared in much the same manner as they would be for a massage, except that the base oil should include the more nourishing oils such as jojoba, avocado or apricot kernel oil. The emphasis here is on treating the skin itself and dealing with particular problems. A gentle circular movement of the fingers is often enough for the oils to be absorbed; it is important not to drag on the skin, especially in the delicate areas of the neck and around the eyes. Rose and neroli are good for dry or mature complexions; geranium, bergamot and lemon can help combat acne and greasy skin.

A few drops of essential oil can also be mixed into a bland cream or lotion, or added to a basic face mask, which might include oatmeal, honey or clay together with the pulp of various fruits. In some conditions, such as cold sores (herpes) and athlete’s foot, it is better to use an alcohol-based lotion rather than an oil or cream. This can be made by adding 6 drops of essential oil to 5ml of isopropyl alcohol or vodka. This mixture can be further diluted in a litre of boiled and cooled water for treating open cuts or sores, such as those caused by chickenpox or genital herpes.

Hot and Cold Compresses

This is a very effective way of using essential oils to relieve pain and reduce inflammation. A hot compress can be made by filling a bowl with very hot water, then adding 4 or 5 drops of essential oil. Dip a folded piece of cotton cloth, cotton wool or a flannel into the bowl, squeeze out the excess water and place the cloth on the affected area until it has cooled to blood heat, then repeat. Hot compresses are particularly useful for backache, rheumatism and arthritis, abscesses, earache and toothache.

Cold compresses are made in a similar way, using ice cold rather than hot water. This type of compress is useful for headaches (apply to forehead or back of neck), sprains, strains and other hot, swollen conditions.

Hair Care

The hair can also be enhanced by the use of a few drops of essential oils in the final hair rinse or added straight to a mild shampoo. An alcohol-based scalp rub can also be made by adding 5ml of an essential oil to 100ml of vodka – this method can be used to condition the hair or to get rid of unwanted parasites such as lice and fleas. An excellent conditioning treatment for different types of hair can be made by adding about 3 per cent (or 60 drops) of an essential oil to a nourishing base oil such as olive oil with jojoba or sweet almond oil, massaging it into the scalp, then wrapping the hair in warm towels for an hour or two. Oils such as rosemary, West Indian bay and chamomile all help to condition and encourage healthy hair growth; lavender can be used to repel lice and fleas; bergamot and tea tree can help control dandruff.

An apothecary’s shop where medicaments are being concocted from herbs and distilled oils; from a sixteenth-century manuscript

Flower Waters

It is possible to make toilet or flower water at home by adding about 20 to 30 drops of essential oil to a 100ml bottle of spring or de-ionized water, leaving it for a few days in the dark and then filtering it using a coffee filter paper. Although essential oils do not dissolve in water they do impart their scent to it as well as their properties.

This method can be very helpful in the prevention and treatment of skin conditions such as acne, dermatitis and eczema, and to generally tone and cleanse the complexion. Almost any oil can be used, but the more traditional ones include rose, neroli, lavender and petitgrain; alternatively, blended flower waters can be made to suit specific complexions.

Baths

One of the easiest and most pleasurable ways of using essential oils is to add 5 to 10 drops of oil to the bath water when the tub is full. Aromatic bathing has traditionally been used as an enjoyable and sensual experience, especially by the Romans; but also to treat a wide range of complaints, including irritating skin conditions, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism and arthritis. An essence such as ylang ylang can be enjoyed as a euphoric aromatic experience in itself; chamomile or lavender can help to relieve stress-related complaints such as anxiety or insomnia; rosemary or pine can help soothe aching limbs. Take care to avoid those oils which may be irritating to the skin.

Vaporization

A delightful way to scent a room, free of the dust or smoke that can be caused by incense, is to use an oil burner, or aromatic diffuser. Alternatively, a few drops of oil can be placed on a light bulb ring or added to a small bowl of water placed on a radiator. Specific oils can be chosen to create different atmospheres: frankincense and cedarwood have been used traditionally in a ritual context, to create a peaceful and relaxed mood. Vaporized oils such as citronella or lemongrass also provide an excellent way of keeping insects at bay or clearing the air of unwanted smells like cigarette smoke.

At one time, the leaves of juniper and rosemary were burnt to help control epidemics and purify the air. Such oils can help keep the environment free of germs and inhibit the development of infections like the common cold or ’flu. An oil such as myrtle or eucalyptus can be used in the bedroom at night to help clear breathing difficulties or children’s coughs. A few drops may also be put on the pillow or onto a handkerchief for use throughout the day. Always ensure that the oil burner is in a safe place and out of reach of children or pets.

Steam Inhalation

This method is especially suited to sinus, throat and chest infections. Add about 5 drops of an oil such as peppermint or thyme to a bowl of hot water, cover the head and bowl with a towel and breathe deeply for a minute – then repeat. Sitting in a steaming hot bath is another way of inhaling a certain amount of essential oil, but obviously it is not so concentrated. This type of application can also act as a kind of facial sauna: oils like lemon or tea tree can help to unclog the pores and clear the complexion.

Douche

This can be useful to help combat common genito-urinary infections such as thrush, cystitis or pruritis. In the case of candida or thrush, add between 5 and 10 drops of tea tree to a litre of warm water and shake well. This mixture can either be used in a sitz bath, bidet or put into an enema/douche pot, which can be bought from some chemists. Certain oils such as lavender and cypress can also aid the healing process after childbirth.

Olive oil, cosmetic and unguent jars; from Dioscondes’s De Materia Medica, 1543

Neat Application

Generally speaking, essential oils are not applied to the skin in an undiluted form. However, there are some exceptions to the rule: lavender, for example, can be applied undiluted to burns, cuts and insect bites, tea tree to spots, and lemon to warts. Certain essential oils such as sandalwood, jasmine or rose make excellent perfumes, dabbed neat on the skin. Beware of those oils which are known to be phototoxic (discolour the skin when exposed to direct sunlight) such as bergamot; irritants such as red thyme; or skin sensitizers such as cinnamon bark. It can also be interesting to make an individual fragrance by blending a selection of oils – see Chapter 5. Certain oils may also be used to perfume linen and clothes or rejuvenate pot pourris: patchouli has been used for centuries in India to scent cloth.

Internal Use

Due to the high concentration of essential oils (and the high toxicity of a handful of essences) it is not recommended that they be taken at home in this manner. The International Federation of Aromatherapists also advises against this method of application. However, since essential oils are readily absorbed through the skin, they can affect the internal organs and systems of the body by external use. In a condition such as arthritis, for example, which indicates a build up of toxins in the joints, the use of dietary measures and herbal remedies can be greatly enhanced by the external application of oils such as juniper and white birch which help to purify the system as well as reduce pain and inflammation at the site of the swelling.

ESSENTIAL OILS SHOULD NOT BE USED AT HOME TO TREAT SERIOUS MEDICAL OR PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS.

5. CREATIVE BLENDING
Therapeutic and Aesthetic Properties

Essential oils are blended principally for two reasons: for their medical effects or to create a perfume. When we are using pure essential oils, these are not two different categories but rather two ends of a scale. At one end of the scale we are dealing with the therapeutic; action on a purely physical condition such as backache – at the other end, with an emotional or aesthetic response to a particular odour. But, of course, the individual who is suffering from lumbago also has a psychic or emotional disposition of which they may or may not be aware, which will naturally respond in a more subtle way to a particular blend of oils. Similarly, when we create a personal perfume which expresses the unique personality of an individual through fragrance, it has a generally remedial effect on the person as a whole.

An engraving showing sixteenth-century perfumers at work, with their chemical apparatus; from Brunschwig’s Liber de Arte Distillandi de Compositis, 1512

Therefore, when we are blending oils, even if it is principally for their medicinal properties, it is always worth keeping the fragrance in mind. It is more pleasing to use a remedy that smells attractive to the individual concerned. Some scents can be quite incompatible – a predominantly floral blend, for example, would be unacceptable to the majority of men. How to choose the oils and combine them is very much a matter of personal choice, but there are some useful guidelines to keep in mind.

Correct Proportions

For therapeutic purposes, essential oils are usually diluted before being applied to the skin. To make a massage or body oil the essential oil or oils should first be mixed with a light base oil such as grapeseed or sweet almond oil. (See also Chapter 4, How to Use Essential Oils at Home.) Other oils that could be used for the base include sunflower, hazelnut, safflower, peanut, soya or corn oil – mineral oils, however, are best avoided. The more nourishing and generally thicker oils which include jojoba, avocado, peach or apricot kernel, borage, olive, sesame, evening primrose and also some infused oils such as calendula or St John’s wort can also be included (up to about 10 per cent) in the treatment of specific conditions. A small quantity of wheatgerm oil (about 5 per cent) added to the blend will help to preserve it.

The essential oil content in a blend should usually be between 1 per cent and 3 per cent depending on the type of disorder; as a general rule, physical ailments demand a stronger concentration than the more emotional or nervous conditions. Some oils, such as the high-quality florals including rose and jasmine, have more diffusive power than most other essences – this means that a very small percentage is all that is needed to have a powerful effect, or to influence the character of an entire blend.

Synergies

The proportions of each essential oil in a blend can also be vital to the effectiveness of the remedy as a whole (many aromatherapy books contain exact recipes for specific disorders). Some oils blended together have a mutually enhancing effect upon one another, so that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts: for example, the anti-inflammatory action of chamomile is supported by being mixed with lavender. When the blended oils are working harmoniously together, then the combination is called a ‘synergy’. ‘In order to create a good synergy, you must take into account not only the symptom to be treated but also the underlying cause of the disorder, the biological terrain, and the psychological or emotional factors involved.’¹⁷

This is very much the conclusion that Madame Maury reached when she prescribed an IP (or Individual Prescription) for her patients, in which the blended essences were matched not only to their physical requirements, but also to their circumstances and temperament.

In general, oils of the same botanical family blend well together. Also those which share common constituents usually mix well, such as the camphoraceous oils containing a good percentage of cineol, which includes all the members of the Myrtaceae group (eucalyptus, tea tree, cajeput, myrtle, etc.) but also many herbs including spike lavender, rosemary and Spanish sage. Most floral fragrances blend well together, as do the woods, balsams, citrus oils and spices, etc. Rosewood and linaloe combine well together, although they belong to different botanical families, since they both contain a high proportion of linalol and linalyl acetate.

Some oils such as rose, jasmine, oakmoss and lavender seem to enhance just about any blend, and can be found (mainly in an adulterated form) amongst the ingredients of most commercial perfumes – ‘no perfume without rose’.

Some combinations, on the other hand, have an inhibiting power over one another. Essences with a predominance of aldehydes (such as citronella oil containing citronella!), those with mainly ketones (such as sage containing thujone) and those with high amounts of phenols (such as clove oil containing eugenol), when combined with each other tend to ‘pull’ in different directions. However, knowing the precise chemical make-up of each oil is not necessary for creating a good synergy; it is also a matter of getting to know the ‘character’ of each essential oil and trusting the intuition.

Fragrant Harmony

In the nineteenth century, a Frenchman called Piesse instigated a new approach to perfumery work by classifying odours according to the notes in a musical scale. He transposed the idea of musical harmony into the realm of fragrances where the corresponding notes to each scent formed perfectly balanced chords or harmonics when they were combined together.

The purist vision of Piesse has long since been discarded but continues to provide inspiration in perfumery work today since the oils are still divided into ‘top’, ‘middle’ and ‘base’ notes.

 The top note has a fresh, light quality which is immediately apparent, due to the fast evaporation rate.

 The middle note is the heart of the fragrance, which usually forms the bulk of the blend, whose scent emerges some time after the first impression.

 The base note is a rich, heavy scent that emerges slowly and lingers. It also acts as a fixative to stop the lighter oils from dispersing too quickly.

Ylang ylang is said to be a well-balanced perfume oil in its own right. It could be described as having a very powerful sweet floral top note, a creamy-rich middle note, and a soft floral, slightly spicy base note.

For the sake of simplicity, each essential oil is also classified in this way according to its dominant character – although there are many different opinions on the matter! The following list provides nothing more than a general idea:

 Top notes tea tree, eucalyptus, mandarin, lemon, basil

 Middle notes geranium, lavender, marjoram, rosewood, rosemary

 Base notes patchouli, rose, jasmine, benzoin, frankincense, myrrh

A well-balanced perfume is said to contain elements from each of these different categories, the quantities of each determining whether it is a heavy oriental-type scent or a light floral aroma. Although this theory is used primarily in fragrance work, the same principles can also be applied to aromatherapy and personalized remedies.

Personal Perfumes

Creating a perfume or an individual fragrance is like painting a picture or making a meal: it needs the correct balance of colours or flavours, neither too sparse nor too crowded; it also generally has a theme. A perfume should have a focus around which other fragrances unite. For example, if we want to create an oriental fragrance or a heart-warming, elevating type of blend, then woody or musky oils and balsams will play a central role. The exotic perfume ‘Shalimar’ by Guerlain contains a predominance of such oils, containing among its ingredients Peru balsam, benzoin, opopanax, vanilla, patchouli, rose, jasmine, orris and vetiver as well as rosewood, lemon, bergamot and mandarin.

Home perfumes need not be so complex: rose and benzoin (base notes), rosewood (middle note) and bergamot (top note) would together make a pleasing combination with an uplifting, warming quality. Rosewood is an oil which can be used to round off sharp edges, as well as providing a good bridge between citrus and floral or woody-balsamic notes. The overall character of a perfume also benefits from unusual or diverse combinations which can help to give personality to an otherwise ‘flat’ fragrance. A floral fragrance with a hint of spice such as clove or cinnamon can add depth and interest, but the percentage of such additions is critical because they can easily upset the balance.

A skilled perfumier can identify some 30,000 different odours, but to begin with it is best to become familiar with a few common oils and develop from there. By initially keeping to a maximum of three or four oils per blend it is possible to keep in touch with their individual scents and qualities, then slowly build up a personal vocabulary of odours.

Most commercial perfumes are diluted in alcohol; a typical eau de cologne contains no more than 3–5 per cent aromatic material, usually synthetic. Home-made perfumes are best made up simply of pure essences, which last longer and may be used neat on the skin or in the bath, etc.

Personal experimentation is the only way to really find out what works, for the unique quality of essential oils is that they possess an array of therapeutic possibilities complemented by a vast spectrum of fragrances which can be mixed in endless combinations! In the words of John Steele:

Creative blending is an aesthetic alchemical process … learning to ‘listen through the nose’. To listen is to be receptive, to be empty. Every drop shifts the orchestration of olfactory vibrations, the ‘song of the blend’. A blend is not made at once, rather it evolves, it organically grows and interacts not only with the essential oils, but also with the blender.¹⁸

Various stages of the alchemical process, including the appearance of the golden flower; from Mutus liber, 1702

6. A GUIDE TO AROMATIC MATERIALS
Habitat

Over thirty families of plants, with some ninety species, represent the main oil-producing group. The majority of spices (allspice, cardamon, clove, nutmeg, ginger, etc.) originate in tropical countries; conversely, the majority of herbs grow in temperate climates (bay, cumin, dill, marjoram, fennel, lavender, rosemary, thyme, etc.). The same plant grown in a different region and under different conditions can produce essential oils of widely diverse characteristics, which are known as ‘chemotypes’. Common thyme (Thymus vulgaris), for example, produces several chemotypes depending on the conditions of its growth and dominant constituent, notably the citral or linalol types, the thuyanol type, and the thymol or carvacrol type. It is therefore important not only to know the botanical name of the plant from which an oil has been produced, but also its place of origin and main constituents. One of the main ways of defining the qualities of a particular oil and checking its purity is to ascertain the specific blend of/components and look at its chemical character.

Chemistry

In general, essential oils consist of chemical compounds which have hydrogen, carbon and oxygen as their building blocks. These can be subdivided into two groups: the hydrocarbons which are made up almost exclusively of terpenes (monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and diterpenes); and the oxygenated compounds, mainly esters, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, phenols and oxides; acids, lactones, sulphur and nitrogen compounds are sometimes also present.

Terpenes

Common terpene hydrocarbons include limonene (antiviral, found in 90 per cent of citrus oils) and pinene (antiseptic, found in high proportions in pine and turpentine oils); also camphene, cadinene, caryophyllene, cedrene, dipentene, phellandrene, terpinene, sabinene, and myrcene among others. Some sesquiterpenes, such as chamazulene and farnesol (both found in chamomile oil), have been the object of great interest recently due to their outstanding anti-inflammatory and bactericidal properties.

Esters

Probably the most widespread group found in essential oils, which includes linalyl acetate (found in bergamot, clary sage and lavender), and geranyl acetate (found in sweet marjoram). They are characteristically fungicidal and sedative, often having a fruity aroma. Other esters include bornyl acetate, eugenyl acetate and lavendulyl acetate.

Aldehydes

Citral, citronellal and neral are important aldehydes found notably in lemon-scented oils such as melissa, lemongrass, lemon verbena, lemon-scented eucalyptus, citronella etc. Aldehydes in general have a sedative effect; citral has been found to have specifically antiseptic properties. Other aldehydes include benzaldehyde, cinnamic aldehyde, cuminic aldehyde and perill aldehyde.

Ketones

Some of the most common toxic constituents are ketones, such as thujone found in mugwort, tansy, sage and wormwood; and pulegone found in pennyroyal and buchu – but this does not mean that all ketones are dangerous. Non-toxic ketones include jasmone found in jasmine, and fenchone in fennel oil. Generally considered to ease congestion and aid the flow of mucus, ketones are often found in plants which are used for upper respiratory complaints, such as hyssop and sage. Other ketones include camphor, carvone, menthane, methyl nonyl ketone and pinocamphone.

Alcohols

One of the most useful groups of compounds, tending to have good antiseptic and antiviral properties with an uplifting quality; they are also generally non-toxic. Some of the most common terpene alcohols include linalol (found in rosewood, linaloe and lavender), citronellol (found in rose, lemon eucalyptus and geranium) and geraniol (found in palmarosa); also borneol, menthol, nerol, terpineol, farnesol, vetiverol, benzyl alcohol and cedrol among others.

Phenols

These tend to have a bactericidal and strongly stimulating effect, but can be skin irritants. Common phenols include eugenol (found in clove and West Indian bay), thymol (found in thyme), carvacrol (found in oregano and savory); also methyl eugenol, methyl chavicol, anethole, safrole, myristicin and apiol among others.

Oxides

By far the most important oxide is cineol (or eucalyptol) which stands virtually in a class of its own. It has an expectorant effect, well known as the principal constituent of eucalyptus oil. It is also found in a wide range of other oils, especially those of a camphoraceous nature such as rosemary, laurel, tea tree and cajeput. Other oxides include linalol oxide found in hyssop (decumbent variety), ascaridol, bisabolol oxide and bisabolone oxide.

Methods of Extraction

In general, the term ‘essential oil’ is rather loosely applied to all aromatic products or extracts derived from natural sources, including concretes, resinoids and absolutes which contain a mixture of volatile and non-volatile components, such as wax or resin. This is not strictly accurate, since they are only partially composed of essential oils and are obtained by different methods of production, which include the use of solvents or more recently, carbon dioxide extraction. However, it is always the essential oil content in a given product that accounts for its aromatic quality.

Some plant materials, especially flowers, are subject to deterioration and should be processed as soon as possible after harvesting; others, including seeds and roots, are either stored or transported for extraction, often to Europe or America. The method of extraction which is employed depends on the quality of the material which is being used, and the type of aromatic product that is required.

Essential Oils

An essential oil is extracted from the plant material by two main methods: by simple expression or pressure, as is the case with most of the citrus oils including lemon and bergamot, or by steam, water or dry distillation. The majority of oils such as lavender, myrrh, sandalwood and cinnamon are produced by steam distillation. This process only isolates the volatile and water-insoluble parts of a plant – any other (often valuable) constituents, such as tannins, mucilage and bitters, are consequently excluded from the essential oil. Sometimes the resulting oil is redistilled or rectified to get rid of any remaining non-volatile matter; some essential oils are redistilled at different temperatures to obtain certain constituents and exclude others – as with camphor which is split into three fractions, white, yellow and brown.

The process of steam distillation as it is practised today

Essential oils are usually liquid, but can also be solid (orris) or semi-solid according to temperature (rose). They dissolve in pure alcohol, fats and oils but not in water and, unlike the so-called ‘fixed’ plant oils (such as olive oil), they evaporate when exposed to air leaving no oily residue behind.

Concretes

Concretes are prepared almost exclusively from raw materials of vegetable origin, such as the bark, flower, leaf, herb or root. The aromatic plant material is subjected to extraction by hydrocarbon-type solvents, rather than distillation or expression. This is necessary when the essential oil is adversely affected by hot water and steam, as is the case with jasmine; it also produces a more trueto-nature fragrance. Some plants, such as lavender and clary sage, are either steam distilled to produce an essential oil or used to produce a concrete by solvent extraction. The remaining residue is usually solid and of a waxy non-crystalline consistency.

Most concretes contain about 50 per cent wax, 50 per cent volatile oil, such as jasmine; in rare cases, as with ylang ylang, the concrete is liquid and contains about 80 per cent essential oil, 20 per cent wax. The advantage of concretes is that they are more stable and concentrated than pure essential oils.

Resinoids

Resinoids are prepared from natural resinous material by extraction with a hydrocarbon solvent, such as petroleum ether or hexane. In contradistinction to concretes, the resinoids are prepared from dead organic material, whereas concretes are derived from previously live tissue. Typical resinous materials are balsams (Peru balsam or benzoin), resins (mastic and amber), oleoresins (copaiba balsam and turpentine) and oleo gum resins (frankincense and myrrh). Resinoids can be viscous liquids, semi-solid or solid, but are usually homogeneous masses of non-crystalline character. Occasionally the alcohol-soluble fraction of a resinoid is called an absolute.

Some resinous materials like frankincense and myrrh are used either to make an essential oil by steam distillation or a resin absolute by alcohol extraction directly from the crude oleo gum resin. Benzoin, on the other hand, is insufficiently volatile to produce an essential oil by distillation: liquid benzoin is often simply a benzoin resinoid dissolved in a suitable solvent or plasticizing diluent.

Like concretes, resinoids are employed in perfumery as fixatives to prolong the effect of the fragrance.

Absolutes

An absolute is obtained from the concrete by a second process of solvent extraction, using pure alcohol (ethanol) in which the unwanted wax is only slightly soluble. An absolute is usually subjected to repeated treatment with alcohol; even so, as is the case with orange flower absolute, a small proportion of the wax remains. Absolutes can be further processed by molecular distillation which removes every last trace of non-volatile matter. The alcohol is recovered by evaporation which requires a gentle vacuum towards the end of the process. Some absolutes, however, will still retain traces of ethyl alcohol, at about 2 per cent or less, and are not recommended for therapeutic work because of these impurities.

Absolutes are usually highly concentrated viscous liquids, but they can in some cases be solid or semi-solid (clary sage absolute). In recent years, much research has been devoted to the extraction of essential oils and aromatic materials using liquid carbon dioxide; oils produced in this manner are of excellent odour quality and are entirely free of unwanted solvent residues or non-volatile matter.

Pomades

True pomades are the products of a process known as enfleurage, which is virtually obsolete today. This was once the principal method for obtaining aromatic materials from flowers that continued to produce perfume long after they were cut. A glass plate was covered in a thin coating of specially prepared and odourless fat, called a chassis. The freshly cut flowers, such as jasmine or tuberose, were individually laid in the fat which became saturated with their volatile oils. The chassis would be frequently renewed with fresh material throughout the harvest. Eventually the fragrance-saturated fat, known as pomade, would be treated by extraction with alcohol to produce the pure absolute or perfume.

Periods of the year for the treatment of various flowers once grown in Provence, France

Natural versus ‘Nature Identical’

Many perfumes or oils, once obtained from flowers such as carnation, gardenia and lilac, are nowadays produced almost entirely synthetically. In the pharmaceutical industry these chemically constructed products are called ‘nature identical’. The perfumery and flavouring industries require continuity in their products and naturally occurring substances are always subject to change, due to seasonal conditions. However, the so-called ‘nature identical’ products and the naturally occurring essential oils are of an entirely different character, which is reflected in their relative costs – the synthetic types being much cheaper to produce than the genuine ones. Many aromatic oils, such as lavender or geranium, contain a relatively small number of major constituents, several minor constituents and also a very large number of trace elements. To reconstruct such a complex combination of components including all the trace elements, would be virtually impossible. Most ‘nature identical’ oils are said to be only about 96 per cent pure or accurate, yet it is the remaining 4 per cent, the trace elements, that often really define a particular fragrance. Such is the case with galbanum oil where the pyrazines, present at rather less than 0.1 per cent, are responsible for the powerful green odour of the oil.

It is also the specific combination of constituents in a real essential oil, including the trace elements, which give it value therapeutically. The reason for this might be that these minute amounts of trace elements have a synergistic or controlling effect on the main ones. For example, there are over 300 different constituents in rose, some of which have not yet been identified, which is why synthetic rose oil is unconvincing. ‘Nature identical’ oils cannot be used therapeutically as substitutes for the naturally occurring aromatic materials, not only because the subtle balance of constituents is lost but also because they lack the vital ‘life force’ of oils of natural origin.

Part II THE OILS

A
AJOWAN

Trachyspermum copticum

FAMILY Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMS T. ammi, Ammi copticum, Carum ajowan, C. copticum, Ptychotis ajowan, ajuan, omum.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An annual herb with a greyish-brown seed, which resembles parsley in appearance.

DISTRIBUTION Chiefly India, also Afghanistan, Egypt, the West Indies and the Seychelle Islands.

OTHER SPECIES see Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The seeds are used extensively in curry powders and as a general household remedy for intestinal problems. The tincture, essential oil and ‘thymol’ are used in Indian medicine, particularly for cholera.

ACTIONS Powerful antiseptic and germicide, carminative.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the seed.

CHARACTERISTICS A yellow-orange or reddish liquid with a herbaceous-spicy medicinal odour, much like thyme.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Thymol, pinene, cymene, dipentene, terpinene and carvacrol, among others.

SAFETY DATA Possible mucous membrane and dermal irritant. Due to high thymol level, should be avoided in pregnancy. Toxicity levels are unknown.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE Not recommended.

OTHER USES It has been used extensively for the isolation of thymol, but this has largely been replaced by synthetic thymol.

ALLSPICE

Pimenta dioica

FAMILY Myrtaceae

SYNONYMS P. officinalis, pimento, pimenta, Jamaica pepper.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An evergreen tree which reaches about 10 metres high and begins to produce fruit in its third year. Each fruit contains two kidney-shaped green seeds which turn glossy black upon ripening.

DISTRIBUTION Indigenous to the West Indies and South America, it is cultivated extensively in Jamaica, Cuba and, to a lesser degree, in Central America. Imported berries are distilled in Europe and America.

OTHER SPECIES Four other varieties of pimento are found in Venezuela, Guyana and the West Indies which are used locally as spices.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used for flatulent indigestion and externally for neuralgic or rheumatic pain. Pimento water is used as a vehicle for medicines which ease dyspepsia and constipation since it helps prevent griping pains. It is used extensively as a domestic spice – allspice is so called because it tastes like a combination of cloves, juniper berries, cinnamon and pepper.

ACTIONS Anaesthetic, analgesic, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, carminative, muscle relaxant, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from 1. the leaves, and 2. the fruit. The green unripe berries contain more oil than the ripe berries, but the largest percentage of oil is contained in the shell of the fruit. An oleoresin from the berries is also produced in small quantities.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. Pimenta leaf oil is a yellowish-red or brownish liquid with a powerful sweet-spicy scent, similar to cloves. 2. Pimenta berry oil is a pale yellow liquid with a sweet warm balsamic-spicy bodynote (middle note) and fresh, clean top note. It blends well with ginger, geranium, lavender, opopanax, labdanum, ylang ylang, patchouli, neroli, oriental and spicy bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly eugenol, less in the fruit (60–80 per cent) than in the leaves (up to 96 per cent), also methyl eugenol, cineol, phellandrene and cryophyllene among others.

SAFETY DATA Eugenol irritates the mucous membranes, and has been found to cause dermal irritation. Pimenta leaf and berry oil should therefore be used with care in low dilutions only.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE Circulation, muscles and joints: Arthritis, fatigue, muscle cramp, rheumatism, stiffness etc. ‘Used in tiny amounts … in a massage oil for chest infections, for severe muscle spasm to restore mobility quickly, or where extreme cold is experienced.’¹

Respiratory System: Chills, congested coughs, bronchitis.

Digestive System: Cramp, flatulence, indigestion, nausea.

Nervous System: Depression, nervous exhaustion, neuralgia, tension and stress.

OTHER USES Used in aromatic carminative medicines; as a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes, especially soaps, aftershaves, spicy and oriental fragrances. Both leaf and berry oil are used extensively for flavouring foods, especially savoury and frozen foods, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.

ALMOND, BITTER

Prunus dulcis var. amara

FAMILY Rosaceae

SYNONYMS P. amygdalus var. amara, Amygdalus communis var. amara, A. dulcis, P. communis.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION The almond tree grows to a height of about 7 metres and is popular as a garden tree due to its pinky-white blossom. It is botanically classified as a drupe.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Western Asia and North Africa, it is now extensively cultivated throughout the Mediterranean region, Israel and California.

Almond Tree

OTHER SPECIES There are two main types of almond tree – bitter and sweet. The sweet almond does not produce any essential oil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION A ‘fixed’ oil commonly known as ‘sweet almond oil’ is made by pressing the kernels from both the sweet and bitter almond trees. Unlike the essential oil, this fixed oil does not contain any benzaldehyde or prussic acid, and has many medical and cosmetic uses. It is used as a laxative, for bronchitis, coughs, heartburn and for disorders of the kidneys, bladder and biliary ducts. It helps relieve muscular aches and pains, softens the skin and premotes a clear complexion.

ACTIONS Anaesthetic, antispasmodic, narcotic, vermifuge (FFPA).

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the kernels. The nuts are first pressed and macerated in warm water for 12 to 24 hours before the oil is extracted. It is during this process that the prussic acid is formed; it is not present in the raw seed. Most commercial bitter almond oil is rectified to remove all prussic acid, i.e. free from prussic acid (FFPA).

CHARACTERISTICS Light colourless liquid with a characteristic ‘marzipan’ scent (FFPA).

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Benzaldehyde (95 per cent), prussic acid (3 per cent).

SAFETY DATA Prussic acid, also known as hydrocyanic acid or cyanide, is a well-known poison. Benzaldehyde is also moderately toxic.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None. ‘Should not be used in therapy either internally or externally.’²

OTHER USES Bitter almond oil is no longer used for internal medication. Rectified bitter almond oil is used for flavouring foods, mainly confectionery; the most common uses are ‘almond essence’ and marzipan. The oil (FFPA) is increasingly being replaced by synthetic benzaldehyde in food flavourings.

AMBRETTE SEED

Abelmoschus moschatus

FAMILY Malvaceae

SYNONYMS Hibiscus abelmoschus, musk seed, Egyptian alcee, target-leaved hibiscus, muskmallow.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An evergreen shrub about 1.5 metres high, bearing large single yellow flowers with a purple centre. The capsules, in the form of five-cornered pyramids, contain the greyish-brown kidney-shaped seeds which have a musky odour.

DISTRIBUTION Indigenous to India; widely cultivated in tropical countries including Indonesia, Africa, Egypt, China, Madagascar, and the West Indies. Distillation of the oil is generally carried out in Europe and America.

OTHER SPECIES A variety, H. esculentus, is grown largely in Istanbul as a demulcent. Another variety is also found in Martinique, the seeds of which have a more delicate scent.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Generally used as a stimulant and to ease indigestion, cramp and nervous dyspepsia. In Chinese medicine it is used to treat headache; in Egypt the seeds are used to sweeten the breath and are made into an emulsion with milk to be used for itch. The Arabs use the seeds to mix with coffee. Widely used as a domestic spice in the East.

ACTIONS Antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, nervine, stimulant, stomachic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation of the seeds. Liquid ambrette seed oil should be allowed to age for several months before it is used. A concrete and absolute are also produced by solvent extraction.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellowy-red liquid with a rich, sweet floral-musky odour, very tenacious. It blends well with rose, neroli, sandalwood, clary sage, cypress, patchouli, oriental and ‘sophisticated’ bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Ambrettolide, ambrettolic acid, palmitic acid and farnesol.

SAFETY DATA Available information indicates the oil to be non-toxic, non-irritant and non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Circulation muscles and joints: Cramp, fatigue, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation.

Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES Employed by the cosmetic and perfumery industries in oriental-type scents and for the adulteration of musk; also used as a musk substitute. Used for flavouring alcoholic and soft drinks as well as some foodstuffs, especially confectionery.

AMYRIS

Amyris balsamifera

FAMILY Rutaceae

SYNONYMS Schimmelia oleifera, West Indian sandalwood, West Indian rosewood.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A small bushy tree with compound leaves and white flowers which grows wild in thickets all over the island of Haiti.

DISTRIBUTION Mainly Haiti, it has now been introduced to tropical zones all over the world, e.g. Jamaica, South and Central America.

OTHER SPECIES Not to be confused with East Indian or Mysore sandalwood (Santalum album), to which it bears no relation.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The locals call it ‘candle wood’ because of its high oil content; it burns like a candle. It is used as a torch by fishermen and traders. It also makes excellent furniture wood.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, balsamic, sedative.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the broken-up wood and branches. Best if the wood is seasoned first. It provides a very plentiful yield.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow, slightly viscous liquid with a musty, faintly woody scent, quickly fading away. It blends well with lavandin, citronella, oakmoss, sassafras, cedarwood and other wood oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Caryophyllene, cadinene and cadinol.

SAFETY DATA Generally non-irritant; no other information available at present.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE Perfume.

OTHER USES As a cheap substitute for East Indian sandalwood in perfumes and cosmetics, although it does not have the same rich tenacity; chiefly employed as a fixative in soaps. Limited application in flavouring work, especially liqueurs.

ANGELICA

Angelica archangelica

FAMILY Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMS A. officinalis, European angelica, garden angelica.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large hairy plant with ferny leaves and umbels of white flowers. It has a strong aromatic scent and a large rhizome.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Europe and Siberia, cultivated mainly in Belgium, Hungary and Germany.

OTHER SPECIES There are over thirty different types of angelica but this is the most commonly used medicinally. see Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION This herb has been praised for its virtues since antiquity.

Angelica

It strengthens the heart, stimulates the circulation and the immune system in general. It has been used for centuries in Europe for bronchial ailments, colds, coughs, indigestion, wind and to stimulate the appetite. As a urinary antiseptic it is helpful in cystitis and is also used for rheumatic inflammation. The Chinese employ at least ten kinds of angelica, well known for promoting fertility, fortifying the spirit and for treating female disorders generally; it has a reputation second only to ginseng. It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for bronchitis associated with vascular deficiency. Candied Angelica stalks are popular in France and Spain.

ACTIONS Antispasmodic, carminative, depurative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, febrifuge, nervine, stimulant, stomachic, tonic. Reported to have bactericidal and fungicidal properties.

EXTRACTION Essential oil produced by steam distillation from the 1. roots and rhizomes, and, 2. fruit or seed. An absolute is also produced on a small scale, from the roots.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. A colourless or pale yellow oil which turns yellowy-brown with age, with a rich herbaceous-earthy bodynote. 2. The seed oil is a colourless liquid with a fresher, spicy top note. It blends well with patchouli, opopanax, costus, clary sage, oakmoss, vetiver and with citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Root and seed oil contain phellandrene, pinene, limonene, linalol and borneol; rich in coumarins including osthol, angelicin, bergapten and imperatorin; also contains plant acids.

SAFETY DATA Both root and seed oil are non toxic and non-irritant. The root oil (not the seed oil) is phototoxic, probably due to higher levels of bergapten. Not to be used during pregnancy or by diabetics.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Skin Care: Dull and congested skin, irritated conditions, psoriasis.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Accumulation of toxins, arthritis, gout, rheumatism, water retention.

Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs.

Digestive System: Anaemia, anorexia, flatulence, indigestion.

Nervous System: Fatigue, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related disorders.

Immune system: Colds.

OTHER USES Highly valued as a fragrance component in soaps, lotions and perfumes especially colognes, oriental and heavy chypres fragrances. It is employed in some cosmetics for its soothing effect on skin complaints. Used extensively as a flavouring agent in most food categories, and in alcoholic and soft drinks, especially liqueurs.

ANISE, STAR

Illicium verum

FAMILY Illiciaceae

SYNONYMS Chinese anise, illicium, Chinese star anise.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Evergreen tree up to 12 metres high with a tall, slender white trunk. It bears fruit which consist of five to thirteen seed-bearing follicles attached to a central axis in the shape of a star.

DISTRIBUTION Native to south east China, also Vietnam, India and Japan. Mainly produced in China.

OTHER SPECIES Several other related species, e.g. Japanese star anise which is highly poisonous!

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used in Chinese medicine for over 1300 years for its stimulating effect on the digestive system and for respiratory disorders such as bronchitis and unproductive coughs. In the East generally, it is used as a remedy for colic and rheumatism, and often chewed after meals to sweeten the breath and promote digestion. A common oriental domestic spice.

Star Anise

ACTIONS Antiseptic, carminative, expectorant, insect repellent, stimulant.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the fruits, fresh or partially dried. An oil is also produced from the leaves in small quantities.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow liquid with a warm, spicy, extremely sweet, liquorice like scent. It blends well with rose, lavender, orange, pine and other spice oils, and has excellent masking properties.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Trans-anethole (80–90 per cent).

SAFETY DATA Despite the anethole content, it does not appear to be a dermal irritant, unlike aniseed. In large doses it is narcotic and slows down the circulation; it can lead to cerebral disorders. Use in moderation only.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.

Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs.

Digestive System: Colic, cramp, flatulence, indigestion.

Immune system: Colds.

OTHER USES By the pharmaceutical industry in cough mixtures, lozenges, etc. and to mask undesirable odours and flavours in drugs. As a fragrance component in soaps, toothpaste and detergents as well as cosmetics and perfumes. Widely used for flavouring food, especially confectionery, alcoholic and soft drinks.

ANISEED

Pimpinella anisum

FAMILY Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMS Anisum officinalis, A. vulgare, anise, sweet cumin.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An annual herb, less than a metre high, with delicate leaves and white flowers.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Greece and Egypt, now widely cultivated mainly in India and China and to a lesser extent in Mexico and Spain.

OTHER SPECIES There are several different chemotypes of aniseed according to the country of origin. Not to be confused with star anise, which belongs to a different family altogether.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Widely used as a domestic spice. The volatile oil content provides the basis for its medicinal applications: dry irritable coughs, bronchitis and whooping cough. The seed can be used in smoking mixtures. Aniseed tea is used for infant catarrh, also flatulence, colic and griping pains, also for painful periods and to promote breast milk. In Turkey a popular alcoholic drink, raki, is made from the seed.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, galactagogue, stimulant, stomachic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the seeds.

CHARACTERISTICS Colourless to pale yellow liquid with a warm, spicy-sweet characteristic scent. Like star anise, it is a good masking agent.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Trans-anethole (75–90 per cent).

SAFETY DATA Its major component, anethole, is known to cause dermatitis in some individuals – avoid in allergic and inflammatory skin conditions. In large doses it is narcotic and slows down the circulation; can lead to cerebral disorders. Use in moderation only.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE See star anise.

OTHER USES By the pharmaceutical industry in cough mixtures and lozenges and to mask undesirable flavours in drugs. Also used in dentifrices and as a fragrance component in soaps, toothpaste, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, mostly of the industrial type. Employed in all major food categories.

ARNICA

Arnica montana

FAMILY Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS A. fulgens, A. sororia, leopard’s bane, wolf’s bane.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A perennial alpine herb with a creeping underground stem, giving rise to a rosette of pale oval leaves. The flowering erect stem is up to 60 cms high, bearing a single, bright yellow, daisy-like flower. The whole plant is very difficult to cultivate.

DISTRIBUTION Native to northern and central Europe; also found growing wild in the USSR, Scandinavia and northern India. The oil is produced mainly in France, Belgium and Germany.

OTHER SPECIES A related plant, A. cordifolia, and other species of arnica are used in America, where it is known as ‘mountain tobacco’.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION This herb stimulates the peripheral blood supply when applied externally, and is considered one of the best remedies for bruises and sprains. It helps relieve rheumatic pain and other painful or inflammatory skin conditions, so long as the skin is not broken! It is never used internally due to toxicity levels.

ACTIONS Anti-inflammatory, stimulant, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation of 1. flowers, and 2. root. The yield of essential oil is very small. An absolute, tincture and resinoid are also produced.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. A yellowy-orange liquid with a greenish-blue hint and a strong bitter-spicy scent reminiscent of radish. 2. Dark yellow or butter-brown oil more viscous than the flower oil, with a strong bitter scent.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Thymohydroquinone dimethyl ether (80 per cent approx.), isobutyric ester of phlorol (20 per cent approx.) and other minor traces.

SAFETY DATA The essential oil is highly toxic and should never be used internally or on broken skin. However, the tincture or arnica ointment are valuable additions to the home medicine cabinet.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.

OTHER USES The tincture is mainly employed in pharmaceutical skin products. The oil from the flowers finds occasional use in herbaceous-type perfumes. It is also used to flavour certain liqueurs.

ASAFETIDA

Ferula asa-foetida

FAMILY Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMS Asafoetida, gum asafetida, devil’s dung, food of the gods, giant fennel.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large branching perennial herb up to 3 metres high, with a thick fleshy root system and pale yellow-green flowers.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Afghanistan, Iran and other regions of south west Asia.

OTHER SPECIES There are several other species of Ferula which yield the oleoresin known as ‘asafetida’, e.g. Tibetan asafetida, which is also used to a lesser extent in commerce.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION In Chinese medicine it has been used since the seventh century as a nerve stimulant in treating neurasthenia. It is also widely used in traditional Indian medicine, where it is believed to stimulate the brain. In general, it has the reputation for treating various ailments including asthma, bronchitis, convulsions, coughs, constipation, flatulence and hysteria. The foliage of the plant is used as a local vegetable. It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for intestinal flatulent colic.

ACTIONS Antispasmodic, carminative, expectorant, hypotensive, stimulant. Animals are repelled by its odour.

EXTRACTION The oleoresin is obtained by making incisions into the root and above ground parts of the plant. The milky juice is left to leak out and harden into dark reddish lumps, before being scraped off and collected. The essential oil is then obtained from the resin by steam distillation. An absolute, resinoid and tincture are also produced.

CHARACTERISTICS A yellowy-orange oil with a bitter acrid taste and a strong, tenacious odour resembling garlic. However, beneath this odour there is a sweet, balsamic note.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Disulphides, notably 2-butyl propenyl disulphide with monoterpenes, free ferulic acid, valeric, traces of vanillin, among others.

SAFETY DATA Available information indicates the oil to be relatively non-toxic and non-irritant. However, it has the reputation for being the most adulterated ‘drug’ on the market. Before being sold, the oleoresin is often mixed with red clay or similar substitutes.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Respiratory System: ‘There is evidence that the volatile oil is expelled through the lungs, therefore it is excellent for asthma, bronchitis, whooping cough etc.’³

Nervous system: Fatigue, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES Now rarely used in pharmaceutical preparations; formerly used as a local stimulant for the mucous membranes. Occasionally used as a fixative and fragrance component in perfumes, especially rose bases and heavy oriental types. Employed in a wide variety of food categories, mainly condiments and sauces.

B
BALSAM, CANADIAN

Abies balsamea

FAMILY Pinaceae

SYNONYMS A. balsamifera, Pinus balsamea, balsam fir, balsam tree, American silver fir, balm of Gilead fir, Canada turpentine (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tall, graceful evergreen tree up to 20 metres high, with a tapering trunk and numerous branches giving the tree an overall shape of a perfect cone. It forms blisters of oleoresin (the so-called ‘balsam’) on the trunk and branches, produced from special vesicles beneath the bark. The tree does not produce a ‘true’ balsam, since it does not contain benzoic or cinnamic acid in its esters; it is really an oleoresin, being a mixture of resin and essential oil.

DISTRIBUTION Native to North America, particularly Quebec, Nova Scotia and Maine.

OTHER SPECIES The hemlock spruce (Tsuga canadensis) also yields an exudation sold under the name of ‘Canada balsam’. There are also many other species of fir which produce oils from their needles – see entry on silver fir and Botanical Classification section. NB: Not to be confused with the genuine balsam of Gilead (Commiphora opabalsamum), of ancient repute.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The oleoresin is used extensively by the American Indians for ritual purposes and as an external treatment for burns, sores, cuts and to relieve heart and chest pains. It is also used internally for coughs.

ACTIONS Antiseptic (genito-urinary, pulmonary), antitussive, astringent, cicatrisant, diuretic, expectorant, purgative, regulatory, sedative (nerve), tonic, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION 1. The oleoresin is collected by punturing vesicles in the bark. 2. An essential oil is produced by steam distillation from the oleoresin, known as Canada balsam or Canada turpentine. (An essential oil is also produced by steam distillation from the leaf or needles, known as fir needle oil.)

CHARACTERISTICS 1. The oleoresin is a thick pale yellow or green honeylike mass which dries to crystal clear varnish, with a fresh sweet balsamic, almost fruity odour. 2. A colourless mobile liquid with a sweet, soft-balsamic, pinelike scent. It blends well with pine, cedarwood, cypress, sandalwood, juniper, benzoin and other balsams.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Consists almost entirely of monoterpenes, pinene, phellandrene, esters and alcohols.

SAFETY DATA Generally non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. ‘In large doses it is purgative and may cause nausea.’⁴

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Skin Care: Burns, cuts, haemorrhoids, wounds.

Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, chronic coughs, sore throat.

Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, genito-urinary infections.

Nervous System: Depression, nervous tension, stress-related conditions – described as ‘appeasing, sedative, elevating, grounding, opening’.⁵

OTHER USES The oil from the oleoresin is used in certain ointments and creams as an antiseptic and treatment for haemorrhoids. Used in dentistry as an ingredient in root canal sealers. Also used as a fixative or fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfurmes. There is some low-level use in food products, alcoholic and soft drinks. The oleoresin is used as a medium in microscopy and as a cement in glassware.

BALSAM, COPAIBA

Copaifera officinalis

FAMILY Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

SYNONYMS Copahu balsam, copaiba, copaiva, Jesuit’s balsam, Maracaibo balsam, para balsam.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Wild-growing tropical tree up to 18 metres high, with thick foliage and many branches. The natural oleoresin occurs as a physiological product from various Copaifera species. Not a ‘true’ balsam.

DISTRIBUTION Native to north east and central South America. Mainly produced in Brazil; also Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam and Colombia.

OTHER SPECIES Several Copaifera speices yield an oleoresin: the Venezuelan type ‘Maracaibo balsam’ has a low oil content, the Brazilian type ‘para balsam’ has a high oil content. See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used for centuries in Europe in the treatment of chronic cystitis and bronchitis; also for treating piles, chronic diarrhoea and intestinal problems.

ACTIONS Batericidal, balsamic, disinfectant, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant.

EXTRACTION 1. The crude balsam is collected by drilling holes into the tree trunks; it is one of the most plentiful naturally occurring perfume materials. 2. An essential oil is obtained by dry distillation from the crude balsam. It is mainly the ‘para balsams’ with a high oil content (60–80 per cent), which are used for distillation.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. The crude balsam is a viscous, yellowy-brown or greenish-grey liquid which hardens upon exposure to air with a mild, woody, slightly spicy odour. It blends well with styrax, amyris, lavandin, cedarwood, lavender, oakmoss, woods and spices. 2. The oil is a pale yellow or greenish mobile liquid with a mild, sweet, balsamic-peppery odour. It blends well with cananga, ylang ylang, vanilla, jasmine, violet and other florals.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly caryophyllene.

SAFETY DATA Relatively non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization. Large doses cause vomiting and diarrhoea.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: Intestinal infections, piles.

Respiratory System: Bronchitis, chills, colds, coughs, etc.

Genito-Rinary System: Cystitis.

Nervous System: Stress-related conditons.

OTHER USES The oleoresin is used in pharmaceutical products especially cough medicines and iuretics. The oil and crude balsam are extensively used as a fixative and fragrance component in all types of perfumes, soaps, cosmetics and detergents. The crude is also used in porcelain painting.

BALSAM, PERU

Myroxylon balsamum var. pereirae

FAMILY Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

SYNONYMS Toluifera pereira, Myrosperum pereira, Myroxylon pereirae, Peruvian balsam, Indian balsam, black balsam.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large tropical tree up to 25 metres high, with a straight smooth trunk, beautiful foliage and very fragrant flowers. Every part of the tree contains a reinous juice, including the fibrous fruit. The balsam is a pathological product, obtained from the exposed lacerated wood, after strips of the bark have been removed. It is a ‘true’ balsam, which is collected in the form of a dark brown or amber semi-solid mass.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Central America; production mainly takes place in San Salvador.

OTHER SPECIES Myroxylon frutescens and guina-guina are close relations, as well as Tolu balsam.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION It stimulates the heart, increases blood pressure, and lessens mucous secretions; useful for respiratory disorders such as asthma, chronic coughs and bronchitis. Traditionally employed for rheumatic pain and skin problems including scabies, nappy rash, bedsores, prurigo, eczema, sore nipples and wounds; it also destroys the itch acarus and its eggs.

ACTIONS Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, balsamic, expectorant, parasiticide, stimulant; promotes the growth of epithelial cells.

EXTRACTION A resin-free essential oil is produced from the crude balsam by high vacuum dry distillation. (A wood oil is also produced by steam distillation from the wood chippings, which is considered of inferior quality. A white balsam called ‘myroxocarpin’ is made from the fruit, and an extract called ‘balsamito’ from the young fruit.)

CHARACTERISTICS The oil is a pale amber or brown viscous liquid with a rich, sweet, balsamic, ‘vanilla-like’ scent. It blends well with ylang ylang, patchouli, petitgrain, sandalwood, rose, spices, floral and oriental bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Benzoic and cinnamic acid esters such as benzyl benzoate, benzyl cinnamate and cinnamyl cinnamate as well as other traces. The crude balsam contains approximately 50–64 per cent oil, referred to as ‘cinnamein’, and 20–28 per cent resin.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant; however the balsam (not the oil) is a common contact allergen, which may cause dermatitis. Those who have this sensitivity may also react to benzoin resinoid; this is called ‘cross-sensitization’. The commercial oil is often a water-white liquid, being diluted with a solvent such as benzyl alcohol.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Skin Care: Dry and chapped skin, eczema, rashes, sores and wounds.

Circulation, Muscles And Joints: Low blood pressure, rheumatism.

Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, coughs.

Immune System: Colds.

Nervous System: Nervous tension, stress; like other balsams it has a warming, opening, comforting quality.

OTHER USES The balsam is extensively used in tropical medicinal preparations, and to some extent in pharmaceutical products, for example, cough syrup. Used as a fixative and fragrance component in soaps, detergents, creams, lotions and perfumes; the oil is often used in perfumery since this avoids any resin deposits or discolouration; used in most food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.

BALSAM, TOLU

Myroxylon balsamum var. balsamum

FAMILY Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

SYNONYMS Toluifera balsamum, Balsamum tolutanum, B. americanum, Myrospermum toluiferum, Thomas balsam, resin Tolu, opobalsam.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tall, graceful tropical tree, similar in appearance to the Peru balsam tree. The balsam is a pathological product, obtained by making V-shaped incisions into the bark and sap wood, often after the trunk has been beaten and scorched. It is a ‘true’ balsam.

DISTRIBUTION Native to South America, mainly Venezuela, Colombia and Cuba; also cultivated in the West Indies.

OTHER SPECIES There are many types of South American balsam-yielding trees, such as the Peru balsam – see entry.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The balsam works primarily on the respiratory mucous membranes, and is good for chronic catarrh and non-inflammatory chest complaints, laryngitis and croup. It is still used as a flavour and mild expectorant in cough syrups and lozenges. As an ingredient in compound benzoin tincture and similar formulations, it is helpful in the treatment of cracked nipples, lips, cuts, bedsores, etc.

ACTIONS Antitussive, antiseptic, balsamic, expectorant, stimulant.

EXTRACTION The crude balsam is collected from the trees. It appears first in liquid form, then hardens and solidifies into an orange-brown brittle mass. An ‘essential oil’ is obtained from the crude by 1. steam distillation, or 2. dry distillation. (A resinoid and absolute are also produced for use primarily as fixatives.)

CHARACTERISTICS 1. A pale yellow-brown liquid with a sweet-floral scent and peppery undertone. 2. An amber-coloured liquid with a rich balsamic-floral scent, which slowly solidfies on cooling into a crystalline mass. Tolu balsam blends well with mimosa, ylang ylang, sandalwood, labdanum, neroli, patchouli, cedarwood and oriental, spicy and floral bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS The balsam contains approx. 80 per cent resin, 20 per cent oil, with cinnamic and benzoic acids, small amounts of terpenes, and traces of eugenol and vanillin.

SAFETY DATA Available information indicates it to be non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization, see Peru Balsam.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE SKIN CARE: Dry, chapped and cracked skin, eczema, rashes, scabies, sores, wounds. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: Bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, croup, laryngitis. ‘It may be used as an inhalant by putting about a teaspoon into a steam bath.’⁶

OTHER USES As a fixative and fragrance component in colognes, cosmetics and perfumes (especially the dry distilled type). Some use in pharmaceutical preparations, e.g. cough syrups. Low levels used in many major food products, especially baked goods.

BASIL, EXOTIC

Ocimum basilicum

FAMILY Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS Sweet basil, Comoran basil (oil), Reunion basil (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Botanically classified as identical from the French basil, though it is a larger plant with a harsher odour and different constituents.

DISTRIBUTION Mainly produced in the Comoro Islands, but it is also processed in Madagascar.

OTHER SPECIES The exotic basil is a dramatically different chemotype to the French basil and probably a seperate sub-species (possibly a form of O. canum), although this has not been specified. Essential oils are also produced in Morocco, Egypt, South Africa, Brazil and Indonesia from various chemotypes of the East Indian or shrubby basil (O. gratissimum), which contain a high percentage of either thymol or eugenol. The hairy or hoary basil (O. canum), originating in East Africa and found in India and South America, is also used to extract oils rich in either methyl cinnamate or camphor, which are produced in West and East Africa, India, the West Indies and Indonesia. See also entry on French basil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION See French Basil.

ACTIONS See Basil French.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and flowering tops.

CHARACTERISTICS The Exotic type oil is yellow or pale green, with a slightly coarse sweet-herbaceous odour with a camphoraceous tinge. It’s scent does not compare with the ‘true’ sweet basil oil.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly methyl chavicol (70–88 per cent), with small amounts of linalol, cineol, camphor, eugenol, limonene and citronellol.

SAFETY DATA Methyl chavicol is moderately toxic and irritating to the skin: ‘the methyl chavicol content of Comoran basil is sufficient reason to discard it for therapeutic usage in favour of the French type.’⁶ There has also been some recent concern over the possible carcinogenic effects of methyl chavicol. Basil should be avoided during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.

OTHER USE The oil is employed in high class fragrances, soaps and dental products; used extensively in major food categories especially meat products and savories.

BASIL, FRENCH

Ocimum basilicum

FAMILY Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNOYNMS Common basil, joy-of-the-mountain, ‘true’ sweet basil, European basil.

French Basil

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tender annual herb, with very dark green, ovate leaves, greyish-green beneath, an erect square stem up to 60 cms high, bearing whorls of two-lipped greenish or pinky-white flowers. The whole plant has a powerful aromatic scent.

DISTRIBUTION Native to tropical Asia and Africa, it is now widely cultivated throughout Europe, the Mediterranean region, the Pacific Islands, North and South America. The European, French or ‘true’ sweet basil oil is produced in France, Italy, Egypt, Bulgaria, Hungary and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES There are many varieties of basil occurring all over the world, used both for their culinary and medicinal applications, such as bush basil (O. minimum), holy basil (O. sanctum), both from India, camphor basil (O. kilimanjaricum) from East Africa (also grown in India), and the fever plant (O. viride) from West Africa. However, there are two principal chemotypes most commonly used for the extraction of essential oil: the so-called ‘French basil’ and the ‘exotic basil’ – see separate entry.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Widely used in Far Eastern medicine especially in the Ayurvedic tradition, where it is called tulsi. It is used for respiratory problems such as bronchitis, coughs, colds, asthma, ’flu and emphysema but is also used as an antidote to poisonous insect or snake bites. It has also been used against epidemics and fever, such as malaria. It improves blood circulation and the digestive system and in China it is used for stomach and kidney ailments.

In the West it is considered a ‘cooling’ herb, and is used for rheumatic pain, irritable skin conditions and for those of a nervous disposition. It is a popular culinary herb, especially in Italy and France.

ACTIONS Antidepressant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, cephalic, digestive, emmenagogue, expectorant, febrifuge, galactagogue, nervine, prophylactic, restorative, stimulant of adrenal cortex, stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering herb.

CHARACTERISTICS ‘True’ sweet basil oil is a colourless or pale yellow liquid with a light, fresh sweet-spicy scent and balsamic undertone. It blends well with bergamot, clary sage, lime, opopanax, oakmoss, citronella, geranium, hyssop and other ‘green’ notes.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Linalol (40–45 per cent), methyl chavicol (23.8 per cent) and small amounts of eugenol, limonene and citronellol, among others.

SAFETY DATA Relatively non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals. Avoid during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Skin Care: Insect bites (mosquito, wasp), insect repellent.

Circulation, Muscles and Joints: Gout, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.

Respiratory Syste: Bronchitis, coughs, earache, sinusitis.

Digestive System: Dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea.

Genito-Urinary System: Cramps, scanty periods.

Immune System: Colds, fever, ’flu, infectious disease.

Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, fatigue, insomnia, migraine, nervous tension: ‘Oil of Basil is an excellent, indeed perhaps the best, aromatic nerve tonic. It clears the head, relieves intellectual fatigue, and gives the mind strength and clarity.’⁸

OTHER USES The oil is used in soaps, cosmetics and perfumery; it is also used extensively in major food categories, especially savouries.

BAY, WEST INDIAN

Pimenta racemosa

FAMILY Myrtaceae

SYNONYMS Myrcia acris, Pimenta acris, myrcia, bay, bay rum tree, wild cinnamon, bayberry, bay leaf (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A wild-growing tropical evergreen tree up to 8 metres high, with large leathery leaves and aromatic fruits.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the West Indies, particularly Dominica where the essential oil is produced.

OTHER SPECIES There are several other varieties, for example the anise-scented and lemon-scented bay, the oils of which have a totally different chemical composition. Not to be confused with bay laurel, the common household spice, nor with the North American bayberry or wax myrtle (Myrcia cerifera) well known for its wax yielding berries.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The West Indian bay tree is often grown in groves together with the allspice or pimento bush, then the fruits of both are dried and powdered for the preparation of the household allspice. The so-called bay rum tree also provides the basic ingredient for the famous old hair tonic, which is made from the leaves by being distilled in rum. ‘A hair application with both fragrant and tonic virtues … useful for those who suffer from greasy hair and need a spirit-based, scalp-stimulating lotion to help them to control their locks!’⁹

ACTIONS Analgesic, anticonvulsant, antineuralgic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, astringent, expectorant, stimulant, tonic (for hair).

EXTRACTION Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the leaves. An oleoresin is also produced in small quantities.

CHARACTERISTICS A dark yellow mobile liquid with a fresh-spicy top note and a sweet-balsamic undertone. It blends well with lavander, lavandin, rosemary, geranium, ylang ylang, citrus and spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Eugenol (up to 56 per cent), myrcene, chavicol and, in lesser amounts, methyl eugenol, linalol, limonene, among others.

SAFETY DATA Moderately toxic due to high eugenol content; also a mucous membrane irritant – use in moderation only. Unlike bay laurel, however, it does not appear to cause dermal irritation or sensitization.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Skin Care: Scalp stimulant, hair rinse for dandruff, greasy, lifeless hair, and premoting growth.

Circulation, Muscles And Joints: Muscular and articular aches and pains, neuralgia, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains, strains.

IMMUNE SYSTEM: Colds, ’flu, infectious diseases.

OTHER USES Extensively used in fragrance work, in soaps, detergents, perfumes, aftershaves and hair lotions, including bay rum. Employed as a flavour ingredient in many major food categories, especially condiments, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.

BENZOIN

Styrax benzoin

FAMILY Styracaceae

SYNONYMS Gum benzoin, gum benjamin, styrax benzoin.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large tropical tree up to 20 metres high with pale green citrus-like leaves, whitish underneath, bearing hard-shelled flattish fruit about the size of a nutmeg. The benzoin is a pathological product, formed when the trunk is cut; the tree exudes a balsamic resin which hardens upon exposure, to air and sunlight.

DISTRIBUTION Native to tropical Asia; the two main regions of production are Sumatra, Java and Malaysia for ‘Sumatra’ benzoin, and Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, China and Thailand for ‘Siam’ benzoin.

OTHER SPECIES There are many different varieties within the Styrax family which produce benzoin, but these are generally classified under either Sumatra benzoin (S. paralleloneurus) or Siam benzoin (S. tonkinensis) – see also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION It has been used for thousands of years in the east as a medicine and incense; the fumigations were believed to drive away evil spirits. It was used by the Chinese herbalists for its heating and drying qualities, as a good urinary antiseptic and as an aid to digestion.

In the west, it is best known in the form of compound tincture of benzoin or Friars Balsam, used for respiratory complaints. Externally it is used for cuts and irritable skin conditions; internally it is used as a carminative for indigestion, etc. It also acts as a preservative of fats.

ACTIONS Anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, astringent, carminative, cordial, deodorant, diuretic, expectorant, sedative, styptic, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION The crude benzoin is collected from the trees directly. Benzoin resinoid, or ‘resin absolute’, is prepared from the crude using solvents, for example benzene and alcohol, which are then removed. Commercial benzoin is usually sold dissolved in ethyl glycol or a similar solvent. A ‘true’ absolute is also produced in small quantities.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. Sumatra crude benzoin occurs as greyish-brown brittle lumps with reddish streaks, with a styrax-like odour. There are several different qualities available; the so-called ‘almond’ grade is considered superior. 2. Siam benzoin comes in pebble or tear-shaped orange-brown pieces, with a sweet-balsamic vanilla-like scent, this type having a more refined odour than the Sumatra type.

Benzoin resinoid is produced from both the Siam and Sumatra types, or a mix of the two. It is an orange-brown viscous mass with an intensely rich sweet-balsamic odour. It blends well with sandalwood, rose, jasmine, copaiba balsam, frankincense, myrrh, cypress, juniper, lemon, coriander and other spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS 1. Sumatra Benzoin: mainly coniferyl cinnamate and sumaresinolic acid, with benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, and traces of styrene, vanillin and benzaldehyde. 2. Siam benzoin: mainly coniferyl benzoate (65–75 per cent), with benzoic acid, vanillin, siaresinolic acid and cinnamyl benzoate.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization. Compound benzoin tincture is ‘regarded as moderately toxic, due probably to occasional contact dermatitis developed in some individuals … which contains, in addition to benzoin, aloe, storax, Tolu balsam and others.’¹⁰

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Skin Care: Cuts, chapped skin, inflamed and irritated conditions.

Circulation, Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, gout, poor circulation, rheumatism.

Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, chills, colic, coughs, laryngitis.

Immune System: ’Flu.

Nervous System: Nervous tension and stress-related complaints. It warms and tones the heart and circulation, both physically and metaphorically: ‘This essence creates a kind of euphoria; it interposes a padded zone between us and events.’¹¹

OTHER USES Compound benzoin tincture is used in pharmaceuticals and in dentistry to treat gum inflammation. The resinoid and absolute are used extensively as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, cosmetics, toiletries and perfumes, especially Siam benzoin. Both types are used in most food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.

BERGAMOT

Citrus bergamia

FAMILY Rutaceae

SYNONYM Citrus aurantium subsp. bergamia.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A small tree, about 4.5 metres high with smooth oval leaves, bearing small round fruit which ripen from green to yellow, much like a miniature orange in appearance.

DISTRIBUTION Native to tropical Asia. Extensively cultivated in Calabria in southern Italy and also grown commercially on the Ivory Coast.

OTHER SPECIES Not to be confused with the herb bergamot or bee balm (Monarda didyma).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Named after the Italian city of Bergamo in Lombardy, where the oil was first sold. The oil has been used in Italian folk medicine for many years, primarily for fever (including malaria) and worms; it does not feature in the folk tradition of any other countries. However, due to recent research in Italy, bergamot oil is now known to have a wide spectrum of applications, being particularly useful for mouth, skin, respiratory and urinary tract infections.

ACTIONS Analgesic, anthelmintic, antidepressant, antiseptic (pulmonary, genito-urinary), antispasmodic, antitoxic, carminative, digestive, diuretic, deodorant, febrifuge, laxative, parasiticide, rubefacient, stimulant, stomachic, tonic, vermifuge, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by cold expression of the peel of the nearly ripe fruit. (A rectified or terpeneless oil is produced by vacuum distillation or solvent extraction.)

CHARACTERISTICS A light greenish-yellow liquid with a fresh sweet-fruity, slightly spicy-balsamic undertone. On ageing it turns a brownish-olive colour. It blends well with lavender, neroli, jasmine, cypress, geranium, lemon, chamomile, juniper, coriander and violet.

PRINCIPAL CONSTTTUENTS Known to have about 300 compounds present in the expressed oil: mainly linalyl acetate (30–60 per cent), linalol (11–22 per cent) and other alcohols, sesquiterpenes, terpenes, alkanes and furocoumarins (including bergapten, 0.30–0.39 per cent).

SAFETY DATA Certain furocoumarins, notably bergapten, have been found to be phototoxic on human skin; that is, they cause sensitization and skin pigmentation when exposed to direct sunlight (in concentration and in dilution even after some time!). Extreme care must be taken when using the oil in dermal applications – otherwise a rectified or ‘bergapten-free’ oil should be substituted. Available information indicates it to be otherwise non-toxic and relatively non-irritant.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Skin Care: Acne, boils, cold sores, eczema, insect repellent and insect bites, oily complexion, psoriasis, scabies, spots, varicose ulcers, wounds.

Respiratory System: Halitosis, mouth infections, sore throat, tonsillitis.

Digestive System: Flatulence, loss of appetite.

Genito-URINARY SYSTEM: Cystitis, leucorrhoea, pruritis, thrush.

Immune System: Colds, fever, ’flu, infectious diseases.

Nervous System: Anxiety, depression and stress-related conditions, having a refreshing and uplifting quality.

OTHER USES Extensively used as a fragrance and, to a degree, a fixative in cosmetics, toiletries, suntan lotions and perfumes – it is a classic ingredient of eau-de-cologne. Widely used in most major food categories and beverages, notably Earl Grey tea.

BIRCH, SWEET

Betula lenta

FAMILY Betulaceae

SYNONYMS B. capinefolia, cherry birch, southern birch, mahogany birch, mountain mahogany.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A graceful tree about 25 metres high which has a pyramidal shape while young. It has bright green leaves and a dark reddish-brown aromatic bark, which is broken into plates or patches.

DISTRIBUTION Native to southern Canada and southeastern USA; produced mainly in Pennsylvania.

OTHER SPECIES There are numerous species of birch, spanning several continents, such as black birch (B. nigra) found in North America. Not to be confused with the European white birch (B. alba), which produces birch tar oil used in chronic skin diseases.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The cambium (the layer directly under the bark) is eaten in the spring, cut into strips like vermicelli. The bark, in the form of an infusion, is used as a general stimulant and to promote sweating. As a decoction or syrup, it is used as a tonic for dysentery and is said to be useful in genito-urinary irritation. The flavour of wintergreen and birch bark, in the form of a tea, was popular with the American Indians and European settlers. More recently, this has been translated into a preference for ‘root beer’ flavourings.

ACTIONS Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, astringent, depurative, diuretic, rubefacient, tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation of the bark macerated in warm water.

CHARACTERISTICS Colourless, pale yellow or reddish tinted liquid with an intense, sweet-woody, wintergreen-like scent.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Almost entirely methyl salicylate (98 per cent), produced during the maceration process. It is almost identical in composition to wintergreen oil.

SAFETY DATA Methyl salicylate, the major constituent, is not exactly toxic but very harmful in concentration.’ It can be absorbed through the skin, and fatal poisoning via this route has been reported.’¹²’ It is also classed as an enviromental hazard or marine pollutant.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.

OTHER USES Limited use as a counter-irritant in anti-arthritic and antineuralgic ointments and analgesic balms. Limited use as a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes; extensively used as a flavouring agent, especially ‘root beer’, chewing gum, toothpaste, etc. (usually very low-level use).

BIRCH, WHITE

Betula alba

FAMILY Betulaceae

SYNONYMS B. alba var. pubescens, B. odorata, B. pendula, European white birch, silver birch.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Decorative tree, up to 15–20 metres high, with slender branches, silvery-white bark broken into scales, and light green oval leaves. The male catkins are 2–5 cms long, the female up to 15 cms long.

White Birch

DISTRIBUTION Native to the northern hemisphere; found throughout Eastern Europe, Russia, Germany, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic coast, northern China and Japan.

OTHER SPECIES Many cultivars exist of this species of birch. The paper birch (B. papyrifera) and B. verrucosa are also used for the production of birch bud oil and/or birch tar. NB Should not be confused with the oil from the sweet birch (B. lenta) which is potentially toxic.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Birch buds were formerly used as a tonic in hair preparations. Birch tar is used in Europe for all types of chronic skin complaints: psoriasis, eczema, etc. In Scandinavia the young birch leaflets and twigs are bound into bundles and used in the sauna to tone the skin and promote the circulation. The sap is also tapped in the spring and drunk as a tonic. Buds, leaves and bark are used for ‘rheumatic and arthritic conditions, especially where kidney functions appear to need support … oedematous states; urinary infections and calculi.’¹³

ACTIONS Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, cholagogue, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge, tonic.

EXTRACTION 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaf-buds. 2. Crude birch tar is extracted by slow destructive distillation from the bark; this is subsequently steam distilled to yield a rectified birch tar oil.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. Pale yellow, viscous oil with a woody-green balsamic scent. It crystallizes at low temperatures. 2. The crude tar is an almost black, thick oily mass. The rectified oil is a brownish-yellow, clear oily liquid with a smoky, tar-like, ‘Russian leather’ odour. It blends well with other woody and balsamic oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS 1. Mainly betulenol and other sesquiterpenes. 2. In the tar oil: phenol, cresol, xylenol, guaiacol, creosol, pyrocatechol, pyrobetulin (which gives the ‘leather’ scent).

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Skin Care: Dermatitis, dull or congested skin, eczema, hair care, psoriasis etc.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Accumulation of toxins, arthritis, cellulitis, muscular pain, obesity, oedema, poor circulation, rheumatism.

OTHER USES Birch bud oil is used primarily in hair tonics and shampoos, and in some cosmetics for its potential skin-healing effects. The crude tar is used in pharmaceutical preparations, ointments, lotions, etc. for dermatological diseases. It is also used in soap and leather manufacture – rectified birch tar oil provides the heart for many ‘leather’ type perfumes and aftershaves.

BOLDO LEAF

Peumus boldus

FAMILY Monimiaceae

SYNONYMS Boldu boldus, Boldoa fragrans, boldus, boldu.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An evergreen shrub or small tree up to 6 metres high, with slender branches, sessile coarse leaves and bearing yellowish-green fruit; when dried the leaves turn a deep reddish-brown colour. The whole plant is aromatic.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Chile; naturalized in the Mediterranean region. Some essential oil is produced in Nepal and Vietnam.

OTHER SPECIES The Australian tree Monimia rotundifolia contains a similar oil, which has been used as a substitute. The oil of chenopodium or wormseed is also chemically related.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The bark is used for tanning, the wood utilized in charcoal making and the fruit eaten by locals. In South America it has long been recognized as a valuable cure for gonorrhoea. In Western herbalism, the dried leaves are used for genito-urinary inflammation, gallstones, liver or gall bladder pain, cystitis and rheumatism. The dried leaves are current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for cholelithiasis with pain.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, cholagogue, diaphoretic, diuretic, hepatic, sedative, tonic, urinary demulcent.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation of the leaves.

CHARACTERISTICS A yellow liquid with a powerful spicy-camphoraceous, disagreeable odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Cymene, ascaridole, cineol, linalol.

SAFETY DATA Extremely toxic. ‘The oil has powerful therapeutic effects, and it can be considered harmful to the human organism even when used in very small doses … should not be used in therapy, either internally or externally.’¹⁴

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.

OTHER USES Used in pharmaceuticals in minute amounts for its therapeutic properties.

BORNEOL

Dryobalanops aromatica

FAMILY Dipterocarpaceae

SYNONYMS D. camphora, Borneo camphor, East Indian camphor, Baros camphor, Sumatra camphor, Malayan camphor.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION The camphora tree grows to a great height, a majestic tree often over 25 metres high, with a thick trunk up to 2 metres in diameter. Borneol is a natural exudation found beneath the bark in crevices and fissures of some mature trees (about 1 per cent); young trees produce only a clear yellow liquid known as ‘liquid camphor’.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Borneo and Sumatra.

OTHER SPECIES To be distinguished from the Japanese or Formosa type of camphor, more commonly used in Europe, which is relatively toxic. See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Borneol has long been regarded as a panacea by many Eastern civilizations, especially in ancient Persia, India and China. It was used as a powerful remedy against plague and other infectious diseases, stomach and bowel complaints. In China it was also used for embalming purposes. ‘It is mentioned by Marco Polo in the thirteenth century and Camoens in 1571 who called it the “balsam of disease”.’¹⁵ It is valued for ceremonial purposes in the east generally, and in China particularly for funeral rites. Its odour repels insects and ants, and it is therefore highly regarded as timber for the construction of buildings.

ACTIONS Mildly analgesic, antidepressant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, carminative, rubefacient, stimulant of the adrenal cortex, tonic (cardiac and general).

EXTRACTION The borneol is collected from the tree trunk in its crude crystalline form (the natives test each tree first by making incisions in the trunk to detect its presence). The so-called ‘oil of borneol’ is extracted by steam distillation of the wood.

CHARACTERISTICS Watery white to viscous black oil depending upon the amount of camphor which it contains, with a distinctive, sassafras-like, camphoraceous odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS The crude is made up of mainly cl-borneol which is an alcohol, not a ketone (like Japanese camphor). The oil contains approx. 35 per cent terpenes: pinene, camphene, dipentene; 10 per cent alcohols: d-borneol, terpineol; 20 per cent sesquiterpenes, and 35 per cent resin.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, dermal irritant in concentration.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Skin Care: Cuts, bruises, insect repellent,

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Debility, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains.

Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs.

Immune System: Colds, fever, ‘flu and other infectious diseases.

Nervous System: Nervous exhaustion, stress-related conditions, neuralgia.

OTHER USES It is used to scent soap in the East but is still relatively unknown in the West in pharmaceutical and perfumery work. In China and Japan it is used for making varnish and ink; also asa dilutant for artists’ colours. Mainly used for ritual purposes in the East.

BORONIA

Boronia megastigma

FAMILY Rutaceae

SYNONYM Brown boronia.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A bushy evergreen shrub, up to 2 metres high, which bears an abundance of fragrant, nodding flowers with an unusual colouring – the petals are brown on the outside, yellow on the inside. Often grown as an ornamental shrub in gardens.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Western Australia; grows wild all over west and south west Australia.

OTHER SPECIES There are over fifteen species of boronia found in Western Australia; B. megastigma is one of the most common and the only one used for its perfume; other types smell of sarsaparilla, lemons or roses! Boronia is botanically related to the citrus tree.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION ‘A botanist in the Victorian era suggested this species would be suitable for graveyard planting because of its dark flowers!’¹⁶

ACTIONS Aromatic.

EXTRACTION A concrete and absolute by the enfleurage method or petroleum-ether extraction, from the flowers. An essential oil is also produced in small quantities by steam distillation.

CHARACTERISTICS The concrete is a dark green butterlike mass with a beautiful warm, woody-sweet fragrance; the absolute is a green viscous liquid with a fresh, fruity-spicy scent and a rich, tenacious, floral undertone. It blends well with clary sage, sandalwood, bergamot, violet, immortelle, costus, mimosa and other florals.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Notably ionone; also eugenol, triacontane, phenols, ethyl alcohol and ethyl formate, among others.

SAFETY DATA Prohibitively expensive and therefore often adulterated.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE Perfume

OTHER USES The absolute is used in high-class perfumery work, especially florals. Used in specialized flavour work, especially rich fruit products.

BROOM, SPANISH

Spartium junceum

FAMILY Fabaceae (Leguminosae).

SYNONYMS Genista juncea, genista, weavers broom, broom (absolute), genet (absolute).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A decorative plant, often cultivated as an ornamental shrub, up to 3 metres high with upright woody branches and tough flexible stems. It has bright green leaves and large, yellow, pea-like fragrant flowers, also bearing its seeds in pods or legumes.

DISTRIBUTION Native to southern Europe, especially southern Spain and southern France; mainly cultivated in Spain, France, Italy and USA (as a garden shrub). The absolute is produced in Southern France.

OTHER SPECIES Closely related to dyer’s greenweed (Genista tinctoria) and the common or green broom (Sarothamnus scoparius or Cytisus scoparius). There are also several other related species of broom, which are rich in their folk tradition.

Broom

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The twigs and bark have been used since ancient times to produce a strong fibre which can be made into cord or a coarse cloth. The branches were also used for thatching, basketwork, fencing and, of course, for making brooms. Spanish broom has similar therapeutic properties to the common broom, which is still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for cardiac dropsy, myocardial weakness, tachycardia and profuse menstruation. However, the Spanish broom is said to be five to six times more active than the common broom, and even that must be used with caution by professional herbalists due to the strength of the active ingredients: ‘A number of cases of poisoning have occurred from the substitution of the dried flowers of Spartium for those of true Broom.’¹⁷

ACTIONS Antihaemorrhagic, cardioactive, diuretic, cathartic, emmenagogue, narcotic, vasoconstrictor.

EXTRACTION An absolute is obtained by solvent extraction from the dried flowers.

CHARACTERISTICS A dark brown, viscous liquid with an intensely sweet, floral, hay-like scent with a herbaceous undertone. It blends well with rose, tuberose, cassie, mimosa, violet, vetiver and herbaceous-type fragrances.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS The absolute contains capryllic acid, phenols, aliphatics, terpenes, esters, scoparin and sparteine, as well as wax, etc.

SAFETY DATA Sparteine, which is contained in the flowers as the main active constituent, is toxic. In large doses, it causes vomiting, renal irritation, weakens the heart, depresses the nerve cells and lowers the blood pressure, and in extreme cases causes death.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.

OTHER USES Used in soaps, cosmetics and high-class perfumery; also as a flavour ingredient in sweet rich ‘preserves’, alcoholic and soft drinks.

BUCHU

Agothosma betulina

FAMILY Rutaceae

SYNONYMS Barosma betulina, short buchu, mountain buchu, bookoo, buku, bucca.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A small shrub with simple wrinkled leaves about 1–2 cms long; other much smaller leaves are also present which are bright green with finely serrated margins. It has delicate stems bearing five petalled white flowers. The whole plant has a strong, aromatic, blackcurrant-like odour.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa, it now grows wild all over South Africa. Dried leaves are exported to Holland, England and America.

OTHER SPECIES There are more than twelve so-called Barosma species in South Africa – the ‘true’ buchus are B. crenulata (contains high amounts of pulegone, a toxic constituent), B. serratifolia and B. betulina.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The leaves are used locally for antiseptic purposes and to ward off insects. In western herbalism, the leaves are used for infections of the genito-urinary system, such as cystitis, urethritis and prostatitis. Current in British Herbal Pharmacopoeia 1983.

ACTIONS Antiseptic (especially urinary), diuretic, insecticide.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried leaves.

CHARACTERISTICS Dark yellowy-brown oil with a penetrating minty-camphoraceous odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Diosphenol (25–40 per cent), limonene and menthane, among others.

SAFETY DATA Should not be used during pregnancy. The toxicity of buchu is unknown but since B. betulina yields oils high in diophenols and B. crenulata yields oils high in pulegone, they should both be regarded as questionable at present.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.

OTHER USES A tincture, extract and oleoresin are produced for pharmaceutical use. Limited use in blackcurrant flavour and fragrance work, for example colognes and chypre bases.

C
CABREUVA

Myrocarpus Fastigiatus

FAMILY Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

SYNONYMS Cabureicica, ‘Baume de Perou brun’.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A graceful, tall tropical tree, 12–15 metres high, with a very hard wood, extremely resistant to moisture and mould growth. It yields a balsam when the trunk is damaged, like many other South American trees.

DISTRIBUTION Found in Brazil, Paraguay, Chile and north Argentina.

OTHER SPECIES Many varieties of Myrocarpus yield cabreuva oil, such as M. frondosus. It is also botanically related to the trees which yield copaiba, Peru and Tolu balsam.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The wood is highly appreciated for carving and furniture making. It is used by the natives to heal wounds, ulcers and obviate scars. It was once listed in old European pharmocopoeias for its antiseptic qualities.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, balsamic, cicatrisant.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from wood chippings (waste from the timber mills).

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow, viscous liquid with a sweet, woody-floral scent, very delicate but having great tenacity. It blends well with rose, cassie, mimosa, cedarwood, rich woody and oriental bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly nerolidol (80 per cent approx.), farnesol, bisabolol, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Skin Care: Cuts, scars, wounds.

Respiratory System: Chills, coughs.

Immune System: Colds.

OTHER USES Fragrance component and fixative in soaps and high-class perfumes, especially floral, woody or oriental types. Previously used for the isolation of nerolidol, now produced synthetically.

CADE

Juniperus oxycedrus

FAMILY Cupressaceae

SYNONYMS Juniper tar, prickly cedar, medlar tree, prickly juniper.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large evergreen shrub up to 4 metres high, with long dark needles and brownish-black berries about the size of hazelnuts.

DISTRIBUTION Native to southern France; now common throughout Europe and North Africa. The tar is produced mainly in Spain and Yugoslavia.

OTHER SPECIES There are many varieties of juniper which are used commercially apart from the prickly juniper: J. communis produces juniper oil, J. virginiana produces Virginian cedarwood oil, and in Yugoslavia an oil is produced from the fruits and twigs of J. smreka.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used in the treatment of cutaneous diseases, such as chronic eczema, parasites, scalp disease, hair loss, etc. especially in France and other continental countries. It is also used as an antiseptic wound dressing and for toothache.

ACTIONS Analgesic, antimicrobial, antipruritic, antiseptic, disinfectant, parasiticide, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION The crude oil or tar is obtained by destructive distillation from the branches and heartwood (usually in the form of shavings or chips). A rectified oil is produced from the crude by steam or vacuum distillation. In addition, an oil is occasionally produced from the berries by steam distillation.

CHARACTERISTICS The rectified oil is an orange-brown, oily liquid with a woody, smoky, leatherlike odour. It blends well with thyme, origanum, clove, cassia, tea tree, pine and medicinal-type bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Cadinene, cadinol, p-cresol, guaiacol, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization problems. Use with care, especially when treating inflammatory or allergic skin conditions. Turpentine (terebinth) oil makes a useful alternative, with less possibility of an allergic reaction.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Skin Care: Cuts, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, spots, etc.

OTHER USES Extensively used in pharmaceutical work as a solvent for chemical drugs, in dermatological creams and ointments, as well as in veterinary medicine. Rectified cade is used in fragrance work, in soaps, lotions, creams and perfumes (especially leather and spice).

CAJEPUT

Melaleuca cajeputi

FAMILY Myrtaceae

SYNONYMS M. minor, cajuput, white tea tree, white wood, swamp tea tree, punk tree, paperbark tree.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tall evergreen tree up to 30 metres high, with thick pointed leaves and white flowers. The flexible trunk has a whitish spongy bark which flakes off easily. In Malaysia it is called ‘caju-puti’, meaning ‘white wood’, due to the colour of the timber.

DISTRIBUTION It grows wild in Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Java, Australia and south eastern Asia.

OTHER SPECIES Several other varieties of Melaleuca are used to produce cajeput oil, such as M. quinquenervia – see Botanical Classification section. Closely related to other members of the Melaleuca group, notably eucalyptus, clove, niaouli and tea tree.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Held in high regard in the East, it is used locally for colds, headaches, throat infections, toothache, sore and aching muscles, fever (cholera), rheumatism and various skin diseases. Only the oil is used in the Western herbal tradition, known for producing a sensation of warmth and quickening the pulse. It is used for chronic laryngitis and bronchitis, cystitis, rheumatism and to expel roundworm.

ACTIONS Mildly analgesic, antimicrobial, antineuralgic, antispasmodic, antiseptic (pulmonary, urinary, intestinal), anthelmintic, diaphoretic, carminative, expectorant, febrifuge, insecticide, sudorific, tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh leaves and twigs.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellowy-green, mobile liquid (the green tinge derives from traces of copper found in the tree), with a penetrating, camphoraceous-medicinal odour. Compared with eucalyptus oil, it has a slightly milder fruity body note.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Cineol (14–65 per cent depending on source), terpineol, terpinyl acetate, pinene, nerolidol and other traces.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, may irritate the skin in high concentration.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Skin Care: Insect bites, oily skin, spots.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.

Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, sore throat.

Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, urethritis, urinary infection.

Immune System: Colds, ’flu, viral infections.

OTHER USES Used in dentistry and pharmaceutical work as an antiseptic; in expectorant and tonic formulations, throat lozenges, gargles, etc. Used as a fragrance and freshening agent in soaps, cosmetics, detergents and perfumes. Occasionally employed as a flavour component in food products and soft drinks.

CALAMINTHA

Calamintha officinalis

FAMILY Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS C. clinopodium, Melissa calaminta, calamint, common calamint, mill mountain, mountain balm, mountain mint, basil thyme, nepeta (oil), French marjoram (oil), wild basil (oil), catnip (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An erect, bushy, perennial plant not more than one metre high, with square stems, soft oval serrated leaves, greyish-green beneath, and rather inconspicuous pale purple flowers. The whole plant has a strong aromatic scent which is attractive to cats.

Calamintha

DISTRIBUTION Native to Europe and parts of Asia (Himalayas), naturalized throughout North America and South Africa. Cultivated for its oil in the Mediterranean region, Yugoslavia, Poland and in the USA.

OTHER SPECIES There are numerous similar species found throughout the world, such as the lesser calamintha (C. nepeta) which has a stronger odour and is often used interchangeably with common calamint. It is also closely related to catmint or catnip (Nepeta cataria) also known as calamint, with which it shares similar properties. Not to be confused with winter and summer savory (Satureja montana and S. hortensis).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION It has a long history of use as a herbal remedy mainly for nervous and digestive complaints, also menstrual pain, colds, chills and cramp. Catmint is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent colic in children and for the common cold.

ACTIONS Anaesthetic (local), antirheumatic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, nervine, sedative, tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering tops.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow liquid with a herbaceous-woody, pungent odour, somewhat resembling pennyroyal.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Citral, nerol, citronellol, limonene and geraniol, among others. The active ingredient that attracts cats is metatabilacetone (3–5 percent). Constituents vary according to source.

SAFETY DATA Non-irritant, non-sensitizing; possible toxic effects in concentration. (The Chinese shrub Actinidia polygama also contains metatabilacetone, which is responsible for its hallucinogenic and narcotic effects.) Use in moderation. Avoid during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Chills, cold in the joints, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.

Digestive System: Colic, flatulence, nervous dyspepsia.

Nervous System: Insomnia, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES Used as a wild cat lure in the USA. Occasionally used in perfumery work.

CALAMUS

Acorus calamus var. angustatus

FAMILY Araceae

SYNONYMS Calamus aromaticus, sweet flag, sweet sedge, sweet root, sweet rush, sweet cane, sweet myrtle, myrtle grass, myrtle sedge, cinnamon sedge.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A reed-like aquatic plant about 1 metre high, with sword-shaped leaves and small greenish-yellow flowers. It grows on the margins of lakes and streams with the long-branched rhizome immersed in the mud. The whole plant is aromatic.

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