BIRDS OF

NEW ZEALAND,

HAWAII

and the

CENTRAL and

WEST PACIFIC

Text and illustrations

by

Ber van Perlo

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Preface

Symbols, Abbreviations and Glossary

Parts of a Bird

Introduction

Species Accounts, Plates and Distribution Maps

1 Podicipedidae (Grebes & Dabchick) & Gaviidae (Loon)

2 Apterygidae (Kiwis) & Spheniscidae (Penguins)

3 Spheniscidae (Penguins)

4 Diomedeidae (Albatrosses)

5 Diomedeidae (Albatrosses)

6 Diomedeidae (Albatrosses)

7 Diomedeidae (Albatrosses) & Procellariidae (Giant Petrels)

8 Procellariidae (Prions, Fulmars & Petrels)

9 Procellariidae (Petrels)

10 Procellariidae (Petrels)

11 Procellariidae (Petrels)

12 Procellariidae (Petrels)

13 Procellariidae (Petrel & Shearwaters)

14 Procellariidae (Shearwaters)

15 Hydrobatidae (Storm-Petrels)

16 Hydrobatidae (Storm-Petrels) & Pelecanoididae (Diving-Petrels)

17 Phaethontidae (Tropicbirds) & Sulidae (Gannets & Boobies)

18 Fregatidae (Frigatebirds), Pelecanidae (Pelican) & Phalacrocoracidae (Cormorants)

19 Phalacrocoracidae (Shags)

20 Ardeidae (Egrets & Herons)

21 Ardeidae (Herons & Bitterns)

22 Ardeidae (Herons) & Threskiornithidae (Ibises)

23 Threskiornithidae (Spoonbills), Dendrocygnidae (Whistling-Duck) & Anatidae (Swans, Shelducks & Goose)

24 Anatidae (Geese)

25 Anatidae (Ducks, Teals & Shovelers)

26 Anatidae (Duck, Wigeons, Teals, Gadwall, Pintail & Garganey)

27 Anatidae (Mallard, Ducks & Teals)

28 Anatidae (Ducks, Scaups, Pochard & Redhead)

29 Anatidae (Goldeneyes, Mergansers, Scoters & Bufflehead)

30 Accipitridae (Eagles) & Pandionidae (Osprey)

31 Accipitridae (Harriers, Sparrowhawk & Goshawk)

32 Accipitridae (Kites, Buzzards & Hawk)

33 Falconidae (Kestrels, Falcons, Merlin & Peregrine)

34 Gruidae (Cranes), Megapodiidae (Scrubfowls) & Phasianidae (Turkey, Guineafowl & Partridges)

35 Phasianidae (Quails, Bobwhite & Francolins)

36 Phasianidae (Pheasants, Junglefowl & Peafowl) & Rallidae (Rails & Weka)

37 Rallidae (Crakes, Rail & Bush-Hen)

38 Rallidae (Watercock, Moorhens, Swamphen, Takahe & Coots)

39 Haematopodidae (Oystercatchers) & Recurvirostridae (Stilts & Avocet)

40 Glareolidae (Pratincole), Charadriidae (Plovers and Lapwing) & Scolopacidae (Sandpiper)

41 Charadriidae (Dotterel, Sandplover & Plovers)

42 Charadriidae (Dotterels, Killdeer & Plovers)

43 Scolopacidae (Godwits, Curlews & Whimbrel)

44 Scolopacidae (Redshanks, Greenshanks, Sandpipers & Yellowlegs)

45 Scolopacidae (Tattlers, Sandpipers, Willet & Turnstone)

46 Scolopacidae (Snipes) & Rostratulidae (Painted-Snipe)

47 Scolopacidae (Phalaropes, Dowitchers, Sandpiper & Ruff)

48 Scolopacidae (Sandpipers, Knots & Sanderling)

49 Scolopacidae (Sandpipers, Stints & Dunlin)

50 Stercorariidae (Skuas & Jaegers)

51 Laridae (Gulls)

52 Laridae (Gulls)

53 Laridae (Gull & Kittiwake) & Sternidae (Terns)

54 Sternidae (Terns)

55 Sternidae (Terns & Noddies)

56 Alcidae (Murrelets, Auklet & Puffins), Pteroclidae (Sandgrouse) & Columbidae (Pigeon)

57 Columbidae (Pigeon & Ground-Doves)

58 Columbidae (Pigeons)

59 Columbidae (Fruit-Doves)

60 Columbidae (Fruit-Doves & Doves)

61 Psittacidae (Parakeets, Parrots & Rosellas)

62 Psittacidae (Lory & Lorikeets)

63 Psittacidae (Parakeets), Cacatuidae (Cockatoo & Galah) & Strigopidae (Kea, Kaka & Kakapo)

64 Psittacidae (Parakeets), Coraciidae (Dollarbird), Upupidae (Hoopoe) & Meropidae (Bee-Eater)

65 Cuculidae (Cuckoos)

66 Cuculidae (Cuckoo & Koels), Caprimulgidae (Nightjar & Nighthawk), Cerylidae (Kingfisher) & Halcyonidae (Kookaburra & Kingfishers)

67 Halcyonidae (Kingfishers)

68 Apodidae (Swiftlets, Needletail, Swift & Treeswift)

69 Tytonidae (Barn Owl & Grass-Owl) & Strigidae (Owls)

70 Motacillidae (Wagtails & Pipits) & Alaudidae (Lark)

71 Acanthisittidae (Rifleman & NZ Wren), Prunellidae (Dunnock) & Timaliidae (Laughingthrushes, Hwamei & Leiothrix)

72 Campephagidae (Trillers, Minivet, Cicadabird & Cuckoo-Shrike), Laniidae (Shrike) & Mimidae (Mockingbird)

73 Turdidae (Rubythroat, Rock-Thrush, Thrushes & Shama)

74 Turdidae (Omao, Kamao, Puaiohi & Olomao), Pycnonotidae (Bulbuls), Sylviidae (Warblers) & Megaluridae (Fernbird)

75 Acrocephalidae (Reed-Warblers & Millerbird) & Cettiidae (Bush Warblers)

76 Acrocephalidae (Reed-Warblers)

77 Acanthizidae (Gerygones), Pachycephalidae (Yellowhead, Whitehead & Pipipi), Muscicapidae (Flycatchers & Shrikebills)

78 Monarchidae (Monarchs & Elepaio)

79 Monarchidae (Flycatchers)

80 Rhipiduridae (Fantail, Willie-Wagtail & Silktail)

81 Monarchidae (Monarchs) & Artamidae (Woodswallows)

82 Hirundinidae (Swallows & Martins) & Zosteropidae (White-Eyes)

83 Zosteropidae (White-Eyes & Silvereye)

84 Zosteropidae (White-Eyes), Pachycephalidae (Whistlers) & Paridae (Tit)

85 Petroicidae (Robins), Colluricinclidae (Morningbird), Notiomystidae (Stitchbird) & Meliphagidae (Bellbird & Wattlebird)

86 Meliphagidae (Tui, Myzomelas, Honeyeaters & Mao)

87 Drepanididae (Parrotbill, Akikiki, Creeper, Alauahio, Akepa, Akekee, Iiwi, Akohekohe, Apapane & Poo-Uli)

88 Drepanididae (Ou, Palila, Nukupuu, Akiapolaau, Anianiau, Amakihis)

89 Emberizidae (Yellowhammer, Buntings & Sparrow), Fringillidae (House Finch), Thraupidae (Saffron Finch & Grassquit) & Oriolidae (Oriole)

90 Fringillidae (Chaffinch, Greenfinch, Goldfinch, Redpoll & Canaries) & Passeridae (Sparrows)

91 Estrildidae (Waxbills & Parrotfinches)

92 Estrildidae (Cordonbleu, Avadavat, Firetail, Silverbill & Munias)

93 Cardinalidae (Cardinal), Thraupidae (Cardinals & Tanager), Icteridae (Meadowlark & Grackle) & Dicruridae (Drongo)

94 Sturnidae (Starlings & Mynas)

95 Sturnidae (Starlings), Artamidae (Magpie), Callaeidae (Kokako & Saddleback) & Corvidae (Rook & Crows)

Acknowledgements

Endnotes

National and International Organisations

Bibliography and Further References

Appendix

Index

Copyright

About the Publisher

Preface

This book should be regarded and treated as a field guide in which the necessary information, needed to identify a bird at the moment you observe it, is given in a condensed form. The low weight and small size thus achieved make it easy to carry the book around and consult in the field. Support of the identification of difficult species can be obtained in more detailed, regional bird books, which could be consulted at home, in vehicles, at your hotel, etc. Sound recordings from commercial CDs and DVDs and transferred to your iPod or other MP3 player can be an important supplementary aid in the field.

It is said that the painting in my books is ‘a bit sketchy, somewhat fast and loose, not finely finished’. However, if you see a bird in the field you see its uniform-coloured plumage parts as a single surface; painting each individual feather will give too much information unless the feathers form a pattern. I also find it difficult to draw straight lines, for example, when depicting the parallel primaries in a folded wing, or perfect circles when forming an eye, but this does not prevent a species from being quickly recognised. To me, it is essential that one can see that my work is hand-painted; I love the magic of small spots and streaks, applied with skill and luck that create a shape of something that looks quite different in reality when seen from nearby.

In the introduction I have paid attention to landscape and habitats, specific to the area, that determine which bird species can be seen; that is also why information is given about plate tectonics, as one of the main landscape-forming factors.

An effort was made to update this book to 2009, but a recent record could not be inserted, namely that of American Avocet Recurvirostris avocetta on Maui, Hawaii. Very similar to 39.9 but with black mantle and white scapulars.

In June 2010, just before finishing writing this book, the fourth edition of the Checklist of the Birds of New Zealand was published by the Checklist Committee Ornithological Society of New Zealand. Only the common names from this publication could be incorporated in this book as explained in the first paragraph of ‘Systematics and Names’.

Symbols, Abbreviations and Glossary

Symbols

Habitat: a set of environmental factors that is preferred by a bird

Vocalisation

Notes on range

Abbreviations

1st W – The plumage worn by a bird after moulting from juvenile plumage

2nd W – The plumage worn in the 2nd winter of a bird’s life

– Male

– Males

– Female

– Females

Ad. – Adult

Ads – Adults

Br – Breeding

N-br – Non-Breeding

C – Central

Cf. – Compare to

E – East(ern)

E. – Endemic

Esp. – Especially

Excl. – Excluding

Extr. – Extreme

I – Introduced

I. – Island

Irr – Irregular visitor

Is – Islands

Imm. – Immature

Imms – Immatures

Incl. – Including

Juv. – Juvenile

Juvs – Juveniles

L – Length in cm

N – North(ern), etc.; also in combination with E and W

NI – New Zealand’s North Island

Nom. – Nominate; the subspecies of a species that was the first described

Pl – Plate

R – Rare

S – South(ern)

Sec – Second or seconds

SI – New Zealand’s South Island

Ssp – Subspecies

Ssps – > 1 subspecies

Thr. – Throughout

V – Vagrant

W – Wingspan in cm; can also mean West(ern): depends on context

Countries

A.Sa – American Samoa

Co – Cook Islands

Fi – Fiji

FrPo – French Polynesia

Gu – Guam

Ha – Hawaii

Ki – Kiribati

Ma – Marshall Islands

Mi – Micronesia

Na – Nauru

Ni – Niue

NMa – Northern Marianas

NZ – New Zealand

Pa – Palau

Pi – Pitcairn Islands

Sa – Samoa

Tok – Tokelau

Ton – Tonga

Tu – Tuvalu

WaF – Wallis and Futuna

Glossary

Endemic A species that occurs only in an area with well-defined boundaries such as a continent, a country, an island or a habitat.

Forest A tall, multi-layered habitat in which high trees dominate the canopy, which is continuous and closed.

Gallery forest A riverine belt that is dominated by trees.

Jizz Typical silhouette and stance of a bird species.

Riverine belt Any growth along a river or stream that is higher and greener than the more distant surroundings.

Rufescent Tinged with red-rufous colour.

Savanna In this book: any (large) area with a continuous cover of (high) grasses, interrupted by shrub and (5–30%) tree canopy.

Second growth New natural forest developing in places where the original forest has disappeared.

Speculum Patch of colour on the wing contrasting with that of the rest of the wing.

Transient plumage Stage between Br and N-br plumages with traces of Br plumage still visable.

Woodland A habitat in which trees dominate, but the canopy is not closed.

Parts of a Bird

Introduction

Systematics and Names

In order to apply a uniform systematic approach and set of names that are valid in New Zealand, Hawaii, the USA, Asia, Europe and anywhere else, this book follows James F. Clements The Clements Checklist of the Birds of the World, 6th Edition (Helm, 2007) with regard to systematic status (species or subspecies) and names (scientific and English).

However, the best-known or most widely used common names used by New Zealanders and in Hawaii should not be neglected, if only to make it easier to find the birds of this book in regional publications. Therefore, alternative English names for species, advised by the Ornithological Society of New Zealand (OSNZ) for New Zealand and by the American Ornithological Union (AOU) for Hawaii, are indicated as insertions in the ‘Clements name’, preceded by ‘NZ’ or ‘AOU’ in superscript. For example:

the species indicated by number 20.9 (Plate 20, number 9) in this book is named the ‘INTERMEDIATE (or NZPlumed) EGRET’; the ‘Clements name’ is INTERMEDIATE EGRET, while the ‘OSNZ name’ is PLUMED EGRET;

number 28.1 in this book is named the ‘(NZAustralian) WHITE-EYED DUCK’; the ‘Clements name’ is WHITE-EYED DUCK and the ‘OSNZ name’ is AUSTRALIAN WHITE-EYED DUCK.

In a few cases, well-known alternative names are inserted in the ‘Clements names’, such as:

41.5 SNOWY (or Kentish) PLOVER

There are also many local names for subspecies, mentioned by the OSNZ and in use for those that occur in New Zealand; these names are given in numbered notes following the captions. An example is:

38.5 PURPLE SWAMPHEN44 Porphyrio porphyrio

ssp melanotus NZPukeko;

ssp pelewensis [Palau]

ssp samoensis [Samoa and Fiji]

In this example, the subspecies Pukeko occurs solely and exclusively in New Zealand (with the extra complication that it is treated by the OSNZ as Nominate of SOUTH-WEST PACIFIC SWAMPHEN NZPorphyrio melanotus). In the following example there are four subspecies found in New Zealand:

14.8 LITTLE SHEARWATER19 Puffinus assimilis

Nom. NZNorfolk Island Little Shearwater

ssp kermadecensis NZKermadec Little Shearwater

ssp haurakensis NZNorth Island Little Shearwater

ssp elegans NZSubantarctic Little Shearwater

Of these, elegans can also be seen outside the area covered by this book, but only in NZ it is known as Subantarctic Little Shearwater. (Note: The OSNZ has recently risen the Clements subspecies elegans to independent species NZSUBANTARCTIC LITTLE SHEARWATER Puffinus elegans.)

The French names are those of the Commission Internationale des noms français d’oiseaux (CINFO 1993).

The sequence of families in this book is more or less traditional, but strongly adapted in order to include up to a maximum of nine, rarely ten similar-looking species, sometimes from different families, in one plate.

Format of the Species Accounts

Plates

In general, the plumages depicted on the plates are Br. plumages unless otherwise indicated. Normally, the birds on any given plate are painted to the same scale except flight silhouettes, which are normally shown smaller. If and have different visual features, such as colouring or dimensions of body parts (e.g. tail length), both are illustrated, unless the differences are only small (e.g. a slightly duller colour of the ). Juveniles, immatures and/or first winter plumages are shown when they are often seen in these plumages. N-br plumages are given if the birds visit the area in this plumage; migrants such as waders, which are mainly seen in N-br plumage, are illustrated in this plumage on the plates. If several subspecies of a species occur in the area, and they are distinguishable, these are in many but not all cases illustrated, but not for example, those separable mainly on basis of range.

An effort has been made to show the birds in their typical ‘jizz’; what birders call jizz is a difficult to define combination of size, relative proportions and body carriage of a bird. Part of a bird’s jizz can be, for example, its stance (the angle of its body axis to the horizontal).

Captions

The information for each species is given in this order:

• the English name in bold capitals (with alternative names in standard lower case);

• the French name between square brackets;

• the scientific name in italics;

• length in cm, measured from tip of bill to tip of tail (L) or between the tips of spread wings (W);

• identification notes with emphasis on the main features, or those that are not visible in the plates (e.g. the colour pattern that appears when a bird opens its wings) or those that are most important for separation from similar species. Notes on behaviour are often added when important for identification;

• habitat (the set of environmental factors, preferred by a bird species) preceded by the symbol ; only simple terms are used such as forest, woodland, marsh, plantations, savanna;

• voice, preceded by the symbol where possible a distinction has been made between ‘call’ and ‘song’ as being the basic vocalisations of birds, ‘call’ being any short, probably unrestrainable sound, given by a bird to indicate its presence to himself or other animals, ‘song’ being the modus in which a (sometimes also the ) advertises its possession of a territory or its mood (anger, nervousness, contentment, togetherness).

In the voice, attention is paid to:

• pitch, using a subjective scale ‘very low, low, mid-high, high, very high, very/extremely high, extremely high’, wherein ‘very low’ and ‘extremely high’ indicate vocalisations that are just not quite too high or too low to be audible and ‘mid-high’ for the normal pitch of an average person’s voice, if trying to imitate the vocalisation;

• speed, for which terms are used as ‘very slow, slow, calm, rapid, hurried, fast’;

• tempo, as defined by the ‘length’ between notes, indicated by the use or absence of hyphens between notes, so beep beep beep is slower than beep-beep-beep, while beepbeepbeep is the fastest. Also terms such as rattle and trill are used to describe tempo; an apostrophe as in t’sreee is used to indicate a short, yet noticeable separation between two consonants;

• loudness, described as soft, weak, loud, ringing, etc.;

• structure, indicated by terms such as accelerated, lowered, gliding, crescendo, staccato, etc.;

• length of song or call given in seconds;

• quality in terms such as harsh, shrieking, mewing, etc.;

• transcriptions – this is the most difficult way to describe ‘voice’ for several reasons: different people will transcribe bird vocalisations using different vowels and consonants (for example, compare the way in which in several bird guides the chirping of a house sparrow is transcribed) and the differences that exist between written and spoken text in different languages (French people will transcribe a sound in a different way to a Dutch or English speaker).

To keep transcriptions short, use is made of the punctuation mark ‘-’ to indicate repetition of one or more foregoing notes. In ‘preep -’ the note(s) are repeated 1–3 times, in ‘preep - -’ the repetition is more than three times and in ‘preep—’ the repetition is given very fast.

The use of an acute accent on a vowel, for example in weétjer, means that part is accentuated; the diacritic grave, as in rèh-rèh rèh, is used to indicate that the ‘e’ sounds as the ‘e’ in ‘red’; similarly, ò sounds as the ‘o’ in ‘pot’; parts of transcriptions written in capitals are uttered louder.

The vocalisations in this book might support an identification or may make it easier to remember a bird sound when it is heard again. However, it should be kept in mind that though the vocalisations of many seabirds, herons and other large waders are described, they vocalise only or mainly in, above or near their breeding colonies.

The description of voice in this book is based on tapes, CDs and DVDs (see Bibliography).

Distribution Maps

Information about range, seasonality and occurrence can be an important aid in supporting or weakening an identification. In the distribution maps, attention is paid to these factors, expressed in the key on page 14.

The Area Covered

The area encompasses the following 20 political entities, given in random sequence:

• Hawaii (US State)

• Fiji (Republic)

• Tonga (Kingdom)

• Nauru (Republic)

• Samoa (Republic)

• American Samoas (US unincorporated Territory)

• Kiribati (Republic)

• Marshall Islands (Republic)

• Federated States of Micronesia (free association with the USA)

• Tuvalu (British Commonwealth)

• Tokelau (New Zealand Territory)

• Niue (free association with New Zealand)

• Cook Islands (free association with New Zealand)

• Guam (US unincorporated Territory)

• Wallis and Futuna (French Overseas Collectivity)

• Pitcairn Islands (UK Overseas Territory)

• Northern Marianas (Commonwealth in union with USA)

• Palau (Republic)

• French Polynesia (French Overseas Territory)

• New Zealand (British Commonwealth)

The Environment

Some Basics for Oceania

The following paragraphs give a short introduction to the factors that determine the presence and distribution of bird species in the area. The main factor that dominates all others is that the area is composed of islands, varying between very large and very small, lying either far apart from or close to each other. All these islands have been uplifted from the ocean bottom by tectonic activity; those in the tropics are modified by reef building. Almost all islands, except the most southern ones, were once covered by forest. The final stage in the formation of habitats was the way in which people transformed and used the environment.

TECTONICS The outer mantle of the earth is formed by solid rock (the lithosphere), covered by an accumulation of sediments, volcanic products and changed basic rock (the crust). The lithosphere overlays the asthenosphere, a mantle of plastic flowing rock.

The lithosphere is horizontally subdivided into seven or eight major plates and many minor plates, which ride on the asthenosphere. Some of these plates and parts of them are denser and heavier, lay lower and form the floor of the oceans. The plates move in relation to each other:

• at spreading (divergent) boundaries (A1);

• at collision (convergent) boundaries (A2); and

• at transform boundaries (A6), where two plates move in opposite directions.

The area covered by this book is dominated by a convergent border between the oceanic Pacific Plate and the continental Australian and Filipino Plates (see map ‘PLATE TECTONICS’).

Tectonic plates separate (or diverge) from each other along a 80,000km long, mainly mid-ocean network (A1) that encompasses the earth. Nearest to the area is a network segment along the west coasts of North and South America. A typical spreading (or divergent) zone (C) can be described as a pair of parallel ridges on both sides of a rift. The rift bottom fills itself with upwelling, red-hot magma, which drives the plates apart and forms new ocean floor.

Collision boundaries are zones of subduction, where heavier oceanic plates dive under lighter continental plates as shown in A2 and D. These zones are marked by a deep trench (D3). When the crust, together with lithospheric material, sinks into the asthenosphere it is heated to such a high temperature that magma chambers (D4) are formed, which float to the surface forming rows of volcanoes (D5) arranged in island arcs (the Kermadecs and Northern Marianas are typical island arcs). These arcs form a sort of perforation, along which the edge of the overlaying plate is often torn off and dragged under itself on the back of the submerging plate.

Other types of conflicting boundaries are also possible (A6), for example, where plates or plate fragments rub along each other under a sharp corner.

The speed of spreading is unevenly dispersed along the mid-ocean ridge system. Tensions are solved by many fissures (A7) perpendicular to the rift. The rift segments (B8) shift in relation to each other; the parts of fissures between rift segments are called transform faults. The movement at their sides is in opposite directions, which may cause volcanic activity. The outer parts of the fissures are called fracture zones; these separate areas moving in the same direction, which causes no or only low volcanic activity.

Here and there, far from the edges, magma penetrates through the ocean plate. These places are known as hotspots (E); hot magma wells up via these holes giving birth to volcanic islands at the surface. Because the ocean plate moves in a north-westerly direction the hot spots keep drilling holes, forming chains of islands, the youngest being the most eastern one. The Hawaiian islands are a good example.

The map ‘PLATE TECTONICS’ also shows a transform fault (green line on map), running from the Nazca Plate (near South America) via the Pitcairns to the Line Islands, which could have produced the many islands of the Pitcairn, Tuamotu and Line Islands. However, their origin could also have been a hot spot near Easter Island.

REEF BUILDING There are many species of coral organisms. The group that can build a reef is only found:

• in clear salt waters;

• at depths shallower than 50m (beneath this depths the coral skeletons change to coral limestone, darker yellow-green in figures);

• with an optimum temperature of 26–27°C; and

• strong currents and/or heavy agitation (otherwise food particles are unable to reach the tentacles of the polyps).

Most if not all tropical Pacific islands have a volcanic origin. Reef building starts as soon as a new volcano has emerged (A) and coral larvae have been carried in by ocean currents.

The first stage is a fringing reef (B) at a short distance from land and normally en-compassing a shallow lagoon. It takes about 10,000 years from stage A to reach stage B.

In the course of time the volcano erodes or the local ocean bottom subsides. If coral growth can keep up with the speed of this process, a barrier reef (C) is formed on the base of coral limestone; note the wider, locally deeper lagoon.

Ultimately, all land will be eroded, and the barrier reef will become an atoll (D) en-closing an open lagoon. The process from A to D can take 30 million years.

It is possible that an atoll can be uplifted by movements in the earth’s crust, by which an uplifted coral island is formed. A limestone rock emerges (E) and becomes encircled by a fringing reef.

LAND USE AND VEGETATION TYPES Once most islands were mainly covered by forest. The arrival of man brought about many changes in this environment and the following are the main present-day habitats.

Ocean

Open Tropical Ocean: warm water contains less prey (fish, squid, etc.) than cold water, therefore most seabirds in the tropical ocean are more numerous at places where deep cold currents from higher latitudes well up above (under) sea mounts (submerged volcanoes) and at the western edges of the Pacific.

Temperate Ocean: water temperatures between 10 and 18°C, found between the tropics and 48°S and N. Rich in oxygen and nutrients, very rich in fish (less species than in tropical seas, but often in large shoals) and in other life forms.

Coastal habitats

Lagoon: shallow, clear water rich in food for terns, gulls, noddies, tropicbirds and frigatebirds.

Seashore: especially important for migrating shorebirds.

Mangrove: mangrove stands support many bird species and form a habitat where heronries are often found.

Littoral Forest: the forests and thickets bordering the beach.

Lowland forest types

Lowland Dry Forest: found at the dry north-western side of high mountain chains, where the rain, brought in by the eastern trade winds, is released on the eastern slopes. All forms of dry forest are almost completely transformed to agricultural use. In the mixed exotic/native remains a few of the original endemic bird species may be found, plus many alien species.

Lowland Rainforest: as highland rainforest but with a more diverse range of tree species, denser undergrowth and many tree ferns.

Agricultural habitats

Coconut/Breadfruit Forest: found in the coastal areas of many Pacific islands. Mixed with species such as guavas, mango and Ficus. This is an ancient man-made habitat.

Farmland: food crops, fruit orchards, floriculture, vanilla, etc.

Savanna: low production grassland with some tree cover, many breadfruit shrubs and dominated by exotic grasses. Often replaces (dry) forest after repeated burning.

Grassland: areas dominated by grasses with little tree and shrub cover, also replacing former forest. Savanna and grassland in Pacific islands are normally the result of human activity.

Wetlands

Wetlands: rare freshwater habitat in the Pacific; most original wetland is drained and changed to crop- and grassland. Wetland bird species are now dependent on man-made ponds, reservoirs, sewage fields, etc.

Upland forest types

Production Forest: mainly Caribbean Pine or Eucalyptus plantations.

Upland Dry Forest: once covered about one-third of the lar-ger Fijian islands and also was common at the leeside of the Hawaiian islands; now greatly altered to savanna with sparse vegetation.

Montane Rainforest: various forest types united by high humidity and limited temperature variations. Exact timing of dry season varies. Characterised by epiphytes and mosses. This habitat has often disappeared from the smaller islands and the remains on larger islands are threatened.

Cloud Forest: the highest parts of rainforest, which are characterised by a high incidence of fog.

Secondary Forest: new natural forest where the original forest has disappeared. As a habitat it is highly variable, from low woodland to tall forest with more open canopy than virgin forests and lacking old emergent trees.

Other habitat types

Lava Plains and other bare ground at high altitudes: for some bird species this forms an important habitat (Hawaii Goose, Omao, Tahiti Petrel, White-tailed Tropicbird).

Some Basics for New Zealand

GEOLOGY The core of New Zealand was pushed, compressed and folded up against the Australian area some 370 million years ago. About 300 million years later (or 70 million years ago) New Zealand and Australia were separated along a rift that created the Tasman Sea. The rift ‘healed’ and 25 million years ago the eroded and flattened remains started to be uplifted again.

South Island is dominated by a row of Alps over the full western length. The subduction processes in the trenches north and south of South Island are contrary to each other, pressing the alpine area together. Along the main Alpine Fault both ‘Alp-halves’ are sliding along each other (the western ‘half’ moving faster north). Secondary faults are forming the highlands near Kaikoura. This is also the place where the deep Kermadec Trench brings cold, fish-rich water near the coast, attracting a host of seabirds.

North Island is dominated by volcanic activity. The Pacific Plate dives under the Australian Plate that carries the island. Where the plate sinks into the liquid-hot asthenosphere, magma is released and ‘floats’ to the surface forming an arc of volcanoes in the Taupo Volcanic Zone. In this zone and elsewhere there are several lakes in places where once large to very large magma chambers exploded (each one forming a ‘caldera’), after which the remains collapsed and were filled by rain water. It is also the zone where many hot springs are found; the water that surfaces here (often as steam) is heated deeper down in the earth’s crust. The volcanoes and calderas outside the Taupo Volcanic zone are mainly remnants of older volcanic arcs.

LAND USE AND VEGETATION TYPES Originally the greater part of New Zealand was covered by forest. After the arrival of the Polynesians (ad1000) and later on the settlement of the Europeans (from about ad1840) more than 50% of the forest was cleared, mainly by fire and grazing. Origin-ally there were no mammals in New Zealand except seals and three bat species, but when the first people arrived they introduced unwillingly or with full intent a wide range of animals, which started to compete with or to live on the native flora and fauna, driving many endemics to complete or near-extinction. The most dangerous intruders were black rats, mice, feral cats and possums. The latter not only eat eggs and nestlings of indigenous species but also the saplings and fresh shoots of indigenous trees and plants. The best places to see remaining endemics are a few islands and a single mainland sanctuary that have been made predator-free.

Before the arrival of the Europeans there were very few deciduous tree species, the 13m-high Tree Fuchsia (Fuchsia excorticata) among them.

The main habitats include the following:

Farmland, orchards, high producing grassland: together covering about 24% of the total land area.

Extensive grasslands: low vegetation, mainly with exotic and indigenous grasses. Livestock tend to be grazed over large areas. Some extensive grassland may have conservation or recreational uses.

Mosaic of different types of forest and farmland: among these is coastal forest, which is not very tall and is made up of plants that can tolerate salty winds. It generally lacks large conifers and has fewer vines and epiphytes. The canopy is dense and wind-shorn.

Lowland forest: resembles tropical rainforest, but is less rich in species. Found mainly in the northern half of North Island. A typical species is Kauri, a gigantic conifer with small oval leaves. Further south other tall species such as Southern Beech dominate. In most places all or most tall trees have been felled.

Upland forest: dominated by Southern Beech. Undergrowth less dense than in lowland forest. Before the introduction of possum, deer and goat, was rich in berry-producing shrubs.

Planted forest: mainly pine species, but also eucalyptus. Often with rich undergrowth of native plants. Covers about 7% of total land area.

Lakes: the lakes of South Island are drowned glacier valleys, those of North Island are mainly water-filled calderas (collapsed magma chambers).

Note: most natural inland wetlands of New Zealand have been drained for agriculture.

The Birds

Island Avifauna

The area covered by this book is characterised by its immense water surface, its countless small islands and the often enormous distances between them. This makes the avifauna typically island in character.

Of the 125, worldwide recognised true seabirds (albatross and petrels), 87 (or 70%) occur in the area.

As a result of the islands never having been connected to other land masses, the birds that are present have arrived on their own wings or with sea currents, by evolution or by human introduction (Polynesians and Europeans). About 70 species (9%) have been introduced, at least 201 species (25%) are endemic, so about 510 species came unsupported from elsewhere.

Before the arrival of humans there were no mammals in the area, except seals, bats and fruit-bats. There were not many birds of prey either. Many bird species could therefore afford to lose the ability to fly; 12 flightless species (excluding penguins) can still be found, namely five kiwis (all species), three rails (Weka, Takaha and Henderson Island Crake), three ducks (Auckland Duck, Auckland Teal and Campbell Teal) and one parrot (Kakapo).

The arrival of man with his domesticated animals and stowaways, such as black rats and the wilful introduction of predators such as weasels and stoats (as means to control other introduced animals such as rabbits), meant the extinction of many species. Fairly recently it appeared that avian diseases spread by mosquitoes have been responsible for the extinction and near-extinction of several species on the Hawaiian Islands (e.g. the Hawaiian Crow). In the mid 1960s the Brown Tree Snake sneaked into Guam. Without the natural predators of the snake or adequate defence by the autochthonic birds the Guam Flycatcher was extirpated and the Guam Rail could only survive in captivity.

An appendix to this book presents a list of 59 species that have become extinct since 1800.

The islands’ isolation has also had these effects:

• many species are fearless and docile. Indigenous birds in New Zealand, for instance, are often easily approachable;

• the genus Acrocephalus spread over many islands and split up in 12 endemic species; these differ mainly in the degree of leucism. The Tahiti species occurs also as a rare melanistic morph;

• islands tend to produce dwarf (none in the area) or giant species. The giants are extinct (unless one wants to consider Takahe, the world’s largest rail and Kakapo, the world’s heaviest parrot, as such). Extinct are the ten ostrich-like, forest dwelling Mao species in New Zealand (the largest reached a length of 2.7m). They were preyed upon by the likewise extinct Haast’s Eagle, which, with a length of 1.7m, was the largest raptor that lived in historical times. Other giants – likewise extinct – were Moa-nalos (giant ducks from Hawaii), Vitilevu Giant Pigeon and Eyles’s Harrier from New Zealand;

• a large amount of endemics. An endemic is a species that occurs only in an area with well-defined boundaries, such as a continent, a country, an island or a habitat. In this book 201 species are mentioned as endemic; only those, occurring with their full life-cycle solely in one of the 20 countries of the area, are treated as endemics, but does not include those restricted to, for example, a group of countries or the whole area. Subspecies are incidentally mentioned as endemic in the captions.

The Endemic Species of the Area

The following pages show maps and the endemics as thumbnails (not depicted to relative scale), arranged per country. The numbers preceding the species refer to the plates and numbers of the species on the plates, while the numbers at the end of the entries refer to the islands on the maps of the countries where the species occur.

Hawaii Endemics

304 species, including the following 33 endemics:

11.6 Hawaiian Petrel Breeds Ha 1,2,4,?5,?7

Pterodroma sandwichensis

24.6 Hawaiian Goose Ha 1,2,5,7

Branta sandvicensis

27.2 Hawaiian Duck Ha 1,2,6,7,8

Anas wyvilliana

27.4 Laysan Duck Ha 13,17

Anas laysanensis

32.6 Hawaiian Hawk Ha 1

Buteo solitarius

38.7 Hawaiian Coot Ha 1–7

Fulica alai

74.1 Omao Ha 1

Myadestes obscurus

74.2 Kamao ?Ha 7

Myadestes myadestinus

74.3 Puaiohi Ha 7

Myadestes palmeri

74.4 Olomao Ha ?5 (no records since 1980)

Myadestes lanaiensis

75.8 Millerbird Ha 8

Acrocephalus familiaris

78.8 Elepaio Ha 1,6,7

Chasiempis sandwichensis

87.1 Maui Parrotbill Ha 2

Pseudonestor xanthophrys

87.2 Akikiki Ha 7

Oreomystis bairdi

87.3 Hawaii Creeper Ha 1

Oreomystis mana

87.4 Maui Alauahio Ha 2

Paroreomyza montana

87.5 Akepa Ha 1,?2

Loxops coccineus

87.6 Akekee Ha 7

Loxops caeruleirostris

87.7 Iiwi Ha 1,2,5,?6,?7

Vestiaria coccinea

87.8 Akohekohe Ha 2,?5

Palmeria dolei

87.9 Apapane Ha 1,2,4–7

Himatione sanguinea

87.10 Poo-Uli Ha ?2

Melamprosops phaeosoma

88.1 Laysan Finch Ha 13,16

Telespiza cantans

88.2 Nihoa Finch Ha 8

Telespiza ultima

88.3 Ou Ha 1

Psittirostra psittacea

88.4 Palila Ha 1

Loxioides bailleui

88.5 Nukupuu Ha (extinct?)

Hemignathus lucidus

88.6 Akiapolaau Ha 1

Hemignathus munroi

88.7 Anianiau Ha 7

Magumma parva

88.8 Oahu Amakihi Ha 6

Hemignathus flavus

88.9 Hawaii Amakihi Ha 1,2,5

Hemignathus virens

88.10 Kauai Amakihi Ha 7

Hemignathus kauaiensis

95.7 Hawaiian Crow Ha 1

Corvus hawaiiensis

Fiji Endemics

149 species, incl the following 28 endemics:

9.2 Fiji Petrel Fi 10

Pterodroma macgillivrayi

31.6 Fiji Goshawk Fi thr., excl. 7

Accipiter rufitorques

58.6 Peale’s Imperial-Pigeon Fi all main Is.

Ducula latrans

60.3 Golden Dove Fi 1,9–11,14

Ptilinopus luteovirens

60.4 Orange Dove Fi 2,4,8,16,18,22

Ptilinopus victor

60.5 Velvet Dove Fi 3,15

Ptilinopus layardi

61.2 Crimson Shining-Parrot Fi 1,3,15

Prosopeia splendens

61.3 Red Shining-Parrot Fi 2,4,10,16–18

Prosopeia tabuensis

61.4 Masked Shining-Parrot Fi 1

Prosopeia personata

62.1 Collared Lory Fi thr., excl. S 7

Phigys solitarius

62.3 Red-Throated Lorikeet Fi 1,2,4,11

Charmosyna amabilis

74.8 Long-Legged Warbler Fi 1,2

Trichocichla rufa

75.3 Fiji Bush-Warbler Fi 1–4

Cettia ruficapilla

77.9 Black-Throated Shrikebill Fi 1–4,11

Clytorhynchus nigrogularis

78.6 Ogea Monarch Fi 23,24

Mayrornis versicolor

78.7 Slaty Monarch Fi thr.

Mayrornis lessoni

79.5 Vanikoro Flycatcher Fi thr.

Myiagra vanikorensis

79.7 Blue-Crested Flycatcher Fi 1,2,4

Myiagra azureocapilla

80.5 Kandavu Fantail Fi 3,15

Rhipidura personata

80.9 Silktail Fi 2,4

Lamprolia victoriae

81.6 Fiji Woodswallow Fi 1,2,4,6,11,16

Artamus mentalis

83.2 Layard’s White-Eye Fi 1–4,11

Zosterops explorator

86.3 Rotuma Myzomela Fi 21

Myzomela chermesina

86.4 Orange-Breasted Myzomela

Myzomela jugularis Fi thr., excl. 21

86.6 Kandavu Honeyeater Fi 3

Xanthotis provocator

86.9 Giant Honeyeater Fi 1,2,4

Gymnomyza viridis

91.7 Pink-Billed Parrotfinch Fi 1

Erythrura kleinschmidti

91.8 Fiji Parrotfinch Fi 1–4,6,28

Erythrura pealii

Tonga Endemics

73 species, including the following 2 endemics:

34.3 Niuafo’ou Scrubfowl Ton 7

Megapodius pritchardii

84.4 Tongan Whistler Ton

Pachycephala jacquinoti

Nauru Endemics

27 species, including the following endemic:

76.9 Nauru Reed Warbler Na

Acrocephalus resei

Samoa Endemics

82 species, including the following 8 endemics:

57.2 Tooth-Billed Pigeon Sa

Didunculus strigirostris

67.5 Flat-Billed Kingfisher Sa

Todiramphus recurvirostris

72.3 Samoan Triller Sa

Lalage sharpei

79.6 Samoan Flycatcher Sa

Myiagra albiventris

80.6 Samoan Fantail Sa

Rhipidura nebulosa

83.1 Samoan White-Eye Sa 1

Zosterops samoensis

84.6 Samoan Whistler Sa

Pachycephala flavifrons

86.8 Mao Sa

Gymnomyza samoensis

American Samoa

66 species, no endemics.

Kiribati Endemics

74 species, including the following endemic:

76.3 Christmas Island Warbler Ki 4,5,13

Acrocephalus aequinoctialis

Marshall Islands

83 species, no endemics.

Micronesia Endemics

223 species, including the following 15 endemics:

57.4 Caroline Islands Ground-Dove Mi 2,3

Gallicolumba kubaryi

62.2 Pohnpei Lorikeet Mi 2

Trichoglossus rubiginosus

68.5 Caroline Islands Swiftlet Mi 1,2,3,?4

Aerodramus inquietus

75.9 Caroline Reed-Warbler Mi 2–4

Acrocephalus syrinx

79.1 Pohnpei Flycatcher Mi 2

Myiagra pluto

79.2 Oceanic Flycatcher Mi 3

Myiagra oceanica

80.2 Pohnpei Fantail Mi 2

Rhipidura kubaryi

81.1 Truk Monarch Mi 3

Metabolus rugensis

81.3 Yap Monarch Mi 4

Monarcha godeffroyi

82.7 Yap White-Eye Mi 4

Zosterops oleagineus

82.8 Truk White-Eye Mi 3

Rukia ruki

82.9 Long-Billed White-Eye Mi 2

Rukia longirostra

83.6 Plain White-Eye Mi 4

Zosterops hypolais

83.8 Grey White-Eye Mi 1,2

Zosterops cinereus

94.5 Pohnpei Starling Mi 2

Aplonis pelzelni

Tuvalu

34 species, no endemics.

Tokelau

29 species, no endemics.

Niue

31 species, no endemics.

Cook Islands Endemics

50 species, including the following 6 endemics:

59.2 Cook Islands Fruit-Dove Co 1,3

Ptilinopus rarotongensis

67.2 Mangaia Kingfisher Co 2

Todiramphus ruficollaris

68.4 Atiu Swiftlet Co 3

Aerodramus sawtelli

76.5 Cook Islands Reed-Warbler Co 2,9

Acrocephalus kerearako

78.1 Rarotonga Monarch Co 1,3

Pomarea dimidiata

94.2 Rarotonga Starling Co 1

Aplonis cinerascens

Guam Endemic

93 species, including the following endemic:

36.6 Guam Rail Gu, NMa 4(I)

Gallirallus owstoni

Wallis and Futuna

39 species, no endemics.

Pitcairn Islands Endemics

43 species, including the following 5 endemics:

37.4 Henderson Island Crake Pi 1

Porzana atra

59.8 Henderson Island Fruit-Dove Pi 1

Ptilinopus insularis

62.6 Stephen’s Lorikeet Pi 1

Vini stepheni

76.6 Pitcairn Reed-Warbler Pi 2

Acrocephalus vaughani

76.8 Henderson Island Reed-Warbler Pi 2

Acrocephalus taiti

Northern Marianas Endemics

109 species, including the following 2 endemics:

81.4 Tinian Monarch NMa 2

Monarcha takatsukasae

84.2 Golden White-Eye NMa 1,3

Cleptornis marchei

Palau Endemics

152 species, including the following 10 endemics:

57.9 Palau Ground-Dove Pa 3–6

Gallicolumba canifrons

60.1 Palau Fruit-Dove Pa

Ptilinopus pelewensis

68.7 Palau Swiftlet Pa

Aerodramus pelewensis

69.8 Palau Owl Pa

Pyrroglaux podarginus

75.1 Palau Bush-Warbler Pa

Cettia annae

79.3 Palau Flycatcher Pa 1–5

Myiagra erythrops

80.1 Palau Fantail Pa 1–5

Rhipidura lepida

84.1 Giant White-Eye Pa 3,5

Megazosterops palauensis

84.3 Dusky White-Eye Pa 1–5

Zosterops finschii

85.5 Morningbird Pa 1–5

Colluricincla tenebrosa

French Polynesia Endemics

121 species, including the following 24 endemics:

45.8 Tuamotu Sandpiper FrPo 2

Prosobonia cancellata

57.5 Polynesian Ground-Dove FrPo 5–8

Gallicolumba erythroptera

57.8 Marquesas Ground-Dove FrPo 9 Gallicolumba rubescens

58.4 Polynesian Imperial-Pigeon FrPo 4,11

Ducula aurorae

58.5 Marquesas Imperial-Pigeon FrPo 12,13

Ducula galeata

59.3 Grey-Green Fruit-Dove FrPo 4,14–19

Ptilinopus purpuratus

59.4 Makatea Fruit-Dove FrPo 11

Ptilinopus chalcurus

59.5 Atoll Fruit-Dove FrPo 2, excl.11

Ptilinopus coralensis

59.6 Rapa Fruit-Dove FrPo 29 (Rapa)

Ptilinopus huttoni

59.7 White-Capped Fruit-Dove FrPo 12,13,20,23,25,26

Ptilinopus dupetithouarsii

62.8 Ultramarine Lorikeet FrPo 12,13,23

Vini ultramarina

67.7 Tahiti Kingfisher FrPo 4,19

Todiramphus veneratus

67.8 Tuamotu Kingfisher FrPo 30

Todiramphus gambieri

67.9 Marquesas Kingfisher FrPo 25,?20,?26

Todiramphus godeffroyi

68.2 Polynesian Swiftlet FrPo 4,19

Aerodramus leucophaeus

68.3 Marquesan Swiftlet FrPo 12,13,23,25,26,28

Aerodramus ocistus

76.1 Tahiti Reed-Warbler FrPo 4,15,19

Acrocephalus caffer

76.2 Marquesan Reed-Warbler FrPo 3

Acrocephalus mendanae

76.4 Tuamotu Reed-Warbler FrPo 2

Acrocephalus atyphus

76.7 Rimatara Reed-Warbler FrPo 27

Acrocephalus rimatarae

78.2 Tahiti Monarch FrPo 4

Pomarea nigra

78.3 Marquesas Monarch FrPo 28

Pomarea mendozae

78.4 Iphis Monarch FrPo 13

Pomarea iphis

78.5 Fatuhiva Monarch FrPo 26

Pomarea whitneyi

New Zealand Endemics

337 species, including the following 65 endemics:

1.6 New Zealand Grebe NZ

Poliocephalus rufopectus

2.1 North Island Brown Kiwi NZ 1

Apteryx mantelli

2.2 Okarito Brown Kiwi NZ 2

Apteryx rowi

2.3 Southern Brown Kiwi NZ 2,3

Apteryx australis

2.4 Little Spotted Kiwi NZ 1,?2

Apteryx owenii

2.5 Great Spotted Kiwi NZ 2

Apteryx haastii

3.7 Yellow-Eyed Penguin NZ 1–3

Megadyptes antipodes

15.2 New Zealand Storm-Petrel NZ

Oceanites maorianus

Breeding location unknown.

19.1 Spotted Shag NZ 1–3,5

Phalacrocorax punctatus

19.2 Bronze Shag NZ 2,3

Phalacrocorax chalconotus

19.3 Rough-Faced Shag NZ 2

Phalacrocorax carunculatus

19.4 Chatham Islands Shag NZ 4

Phalacrocorax onslowi

19.5 Campbell Islands Shag NZ 7,8

Phalacrocorax campbelli

19.6 Bounty Islands Shag NZ 5,9

Phalacrocorax ranfurlyi

19.7 Auckland Islands Shag NZ 5,6

Phalacrocorax colensoi

19.9 Pitt Island Shag NZ 4

Phalacrocorax featherstoni

23.5 Paradise Shelduck NZ 1,2,4,10

Tadorna variegata

25.1 Blue Duck NZ 1,2

Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos

25.7 Brown Teal NZ 1,2

Anas chlorotis

25.8 Auckland Islands Teal NZ 6

Anas aucklandica

25.9 Campbell Islands Teal NZ 7,12

Anas nesiotis

28.2 New Zealand Scaup NZ 1,2

Aythya novaeseelandiae

33.5 New Zealand Falcon NZ 1–3,6,7

Falco novaeseelandiae

36.8 Weka NZ 1–4

Gallirallus australis

36.9 Auckland Islands Rail NZ 6

Lewinia muelleri

38.6 Takahe NZ 1,2

Porphyrio mantelli

39.1 Variable Oystercatcher NZ 1–3

Haematopus uni colour

39.3 Chatham Oystercatcher NZ 1

Haematopus chathamensis

39.4 South Island Oystercatcher NZ 1,2,4,5,10

Haematopus finschi

39.8 Black Stilt NZ 1,2

Himantopus novaezelandiae

40.2 Shore Plover NZ 1,2,4

Thinornis novaeseelandiae

40.3 Wrybill NZ 1,2,4

Anarhynchus frontalis

42.5 Red-Breasted Dotterel NZ 1–3

Charadrius obscurus

46.2 Subantarctic Snipe NZ 6–8

Coenocorypha aucklandica

46.3 Chatham Islands Snipe NZ 4

Coenocorypha pusilla

51.3 Red-Billed Gull NZ 1–7

Chroicocephalus scopulinus

51.5 Black-Billed Gull NZ 1–3

Chroicocephalus bulleri

55.4 Black-Fronted Tern NZ 1–3,5

Chlidonias albostriatus

58.1 New Zealand Pigeon NZ 1–3

Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae

63.6 Kea NZ 1,2

Nestor notabilis

63.7 New Zealand Kaka NZ 1–3

Nestor meridionalis

63.8 Kakapo NZ ?1,?2,?3

Strigops habroptila

64.1 Antipodes Parakeet NZ 8

Cyanoramphus unicolor

64.2 Yellow-Fronted Parakeet NZ 1–3,?5

Cyanoramphus auriceps

64.3 Red-Fronted Parakeet NZ 1–6,10

Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae

64.4 Chatham Islands Parakeet NZ 4

Cyanoramphus forbesi

64.5 Malherbe’s Parakeet NZ 2

Cyanoramphus malherbi

71.1 Rifleman NZ 1–3

Acanthisitta chloris

71.2 South Island Wren NZ 2

Xenicus gilviventris

74.9 Fernbird NZ 1–3

Megalurus punctatus

77.1 Grey Gerygone NZ 1–3,5

Gerygone igata

77.2 Chatham Island Gerygone NZ 4

Gerygone albofrontata

77.3 Yellowhead NZ 2

Mohoua ochrocephala

77.4 Whitehead NZ 1

Mohoua albicilla

77.5 Pipipi NZ 2,3

Mohoua novaeseelandiae

80.7 New Zealand Fantail NZ 1–5

Rhipidura fuliginosa

85.1 Tomtit NZ 1–6

Petroica macrocephala

85.3 Chatham Robin NZ 4

Petroica traversi

85.4 New Zealand Robin NZ 2,3

Petroica australis

85.5 North Island Robin NZ 1

Petroica longipes

85.7 Stitchbird NZ 1,11,12

Notiomystis cincta

85.8 New Zealand Bellbird NZ 1–3,6,7

Anthornis melanura

86.1 Tui NZ 1–6,10

Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae

95.4 Kokako NZ 1,?2,?3

Callaeas cinereus

95.5 Saddleback NZ small Is off mainland

Philesturnus carunculatus

The largest number of endemic species is found in New Zealand (65), followed by Hawaii (33), Fiji (28) and French Polynesia (24). New Zealand and Hawaii also have completely endemic families, in New Zealand the kiwis (Apterygidae, five species), the New Zealand Wrens (Acanthissittidae, two species) and the Wattlebirds (Callaeidae, two species) and in Hawaii the family of Hawaiian Creepers (Drepanididae, 20 species). All members of the Hawaiian Creepers’ family relate back to a finch-like bird, which arrived in Hawaii a long time ago and who’s offspring diversified into a large number of species, of which only these 20 remain today. Other bird groups that are represented by many endemics in the area are:

• Rails and Crakes (family Rallidae); in total 135 species worldwide, of which 21 are found in the area, including six endemics;

• Ground-Doves (genus Gallicolumba); in total 16 species in Philippines, Indonesia and Polynesia, of which six are found in the area, including four endemics;

• Fruit-Doves (genus Ptilinopus); in total 51 species in Melanesia, Philippines and Polynesia, of which 15 are found in the area, including 11 endemics;

• Reed-Warblers (genus Acrocephalus); in total 37 species worldwide, of which 15 are found in the area, including ten endemics;

• Monarch Flycatchers (family Monarchidae); in total 100 species in the tropics, of which 21 are found in the area, including 15 endemics;

• White-eyes (family Zosteropidae); in total 96 species in the tropics and subtropics, of which 14 are found in the area, including ten endemics.

The large family of the Parrots Psittacidae (worldwide 347 species) is represented by only 28 species, relatively a small amount, of which 16 are endemic and ten are introduced.

Except the ‘true’ endemics there are also several breeding endemics, especially seabirds who visit countries in the area only to breed but disperse widely after breeding. New Zealand counts 12 breeding endemics, given in the following list:

3.1 Fiordland Penguin

Eudyptes pachyrhynchus

3.2 Snares Penguin

Eudyptes robustus

3.3 Erect-Crested Penguin

Eudyptes sclateri

6.5 Buller’s Albatross

Thallasarche bulleri

9.9 Magenta Petrel

Pterodroma magentae

10.1 Chatham Petrel

Pterodroma axillaris

10.8 Cook’s Petrel

Pterodroma cookii

11.1 Pycroft’s Petrel

Pterodroma pycrofti

12.7 Westland Petrel

Procellaria westlandica

12.9 Parkinson’s Petrel

Procellaria parkinsoni

14.2 Buller’s Shearwater

Puffinus bulleri

14.5 Hutton’s Shearwater

Puffinus huttoni

THE PLATES

1 Grebes & Loon

1.1 PIED-BILLED GREBE Podilymbus podiceps [Grèbe à bec bigarré] L 34cm. Note heavy bill. Rather vocal. Moults before departure from winter quarters. Wings unmarked in flight. Winters on sheltered freshwater ponds near vegetation. Series of nasal, trumpet-like or hollow notes. Ha.

1.2 RED-NECKED GREBE Podiceps grisegena [Grèbe jougris] L 47cm. Note yellow base to long bill and thick neck. Br and N-br wing pattern like Br plumage of smaller 1.3. Winters in open estuaries and other coastal waters and on open ocean. Ha 7.

1.3 HORNED GREBE Podiceps auritus [Grèbe esclavon] L 35cm. From 1.4 by pale tip to bill. Br plumage from 1.4 by colour of neck. Crown of N-br plumage peaks further back than in 1.4. N-br wing pattern like 1.4. Winters normally on quiet inland waters, sheltered bays and (occasionally) on open ocean. Ha 7.

1.4 EARED GREBE Podiceps nigricollis [Grèbe à cou noir] L 31cm. Differs in N-br plumage from 1.3 by different head silhouette with diffuse streak behind eye. Winters normally on coastal waters and open ocean. Ha 2,6,13. V

1.5 HOARY-HEADED GREBE Podiocephalus poliocephalus [Grèbe argenté] L 29cm. From 1.3 and 1.4 by range. Rather pale and slim without chestnut tones in plumage (see Br plumage of 1.6). Note clean white cheeks in N-br plumage. Fresh and saline waters of open wetlands and estuaries. Occasionally on farm ponds. High, frog-like puRrreeh in series of 2–3. NZ 1,2,5.

1.6 NEW ZEALAND GREBE (or NZDabchick) Podiocephalus rufopectus [Grèbe de Nouvelle-Zélande] L 29cm. Br plumage unmistakable by chestnut neck and silvery streaked head. N-br plumage from similar 1.7 by more elongated jizz and lack of yellow at bill base. Small, shallow waters such as farm dams and sewage ponds. Low, raspy wró’wo’róugh. NZ 1,2. E.NZ

1.7 AUSTRALASIAN (or NZEastern Little) GREBE¹ Tachybaptus novaehollandiae [Grèbe australasien] L 25cm. Smallest grebe. Yellow bill base and compact build diagnostic. Small water bodies like ponds, dams, quiet streams and swamps. Very high, twittering peepeepeep—. NZ 1,2.

1.8 GREAT CRESTED GREBE² Podiceps cristatus [Grèbe huppé] L 50cm. Unmistakable by head pattern. Br and N-br plumage of NZ ssp similar. Imm. without ruff and with short crest. Juv. like all other grebes with striped face and neck sides. Open lakes. NZ 1,2. R

1.9 PACIFIC LOON Gavia pacifica [Plongeon du Pacifique] L 65cm. Bill normally held horizontally as compared to other loons, but more upturned than most grebes. In N-br plumage with very narrow white eyering and sharp contrast dark-white on neck. Back faintly barred in N-br plumage and with distinct white flash on rearmost part of flanks. Winters on open ocean and deep bays. Ha 2,6,17. V

2 Kiwis & Penguins³

2.1 NORTHERN ISLAND BROWN KIWI Apteryx mantelli [Kiwi de Mantell] L 50cm. Note brownish plumage. Prefers dense forest and shrubland, but occurs also in pine plantations, scrub, second growth and pastures. High, rising, shrill whistle. NZ 1. E.NZ

2.2 OKARITO BROWN KIWI Apteryx rowi [Kiwi d’Okarito] L 50cm. Greyer than 2.1. Dense lowland forest. NZ 2. E.NZ

2.3 SOUTHERN BROWN KIWI⁴ Apteryx australis [Kiwi austral] L 50cm. From 2.1–2 by range. Sole Brown Kiwi that might come out in daytime. Wet forest, also in subalpine tussockland. High, descending, shrieking yell wee-oh (), that of deeper and more hoarse. NZ 2,3. E.NZ.

2.4 LITTLE SPOTTED KIWI Apteryx owenii [Kiwi d’Owen] L 40cm. From larger 2.5 mainly by range. Mainly interior and at margins of forest with dense undergrowth; up to 1,000m. Long, gradually ascending, high-pitched series of wreeh notes. NZ 1,2. R E.NZ

2.5 GREAT SPOTTED KIWI Apteryx haastii [Kiwi roa] L 55cm. Cf. 2.4. Mossy beech forest, tussock grassland, coastal scrub. Up to 1,200m, mainly above 700m. Slow, slightly ascending, mid-high series of wrraah notes. NZ 2. R E.NZ

2.6 KING PENGUIN Aptenodytes patagonicus [Manchot royal] L 90cm. From 2.7 by larger yellow base to lower mandible, paler upperparts and narrower black border between dark mantle and white breast. Imm. like Ad. but yellow at bill and throat much paler. Pelagic, occasionally at islands, rare at mainland. Thin bleating (as starting of Formula 1 cars). NZ 2,4–8.

2.7 EMPEROR PENGUIN Aptenodytes forsteri [Manchot empereur] L 115cm. Larger than 2.6, which see. Imm. shows white throat, gradually changing with age into black throat like Ad. Pelagic, rare at islands. In colony bleating, rising, bouncing vehvehveh. NZ 3.

2.8 GENTOO PENGUIN⁵ Pygoscelis papua [Manchot papou] L 75cm. Note black eyes, mainly red bill, triangular white patch above eyes and yellow to dull orange feet. Pelagic, occasionally at islands and mainland. Low, donkey-like braying. Off NZ. R

2.9 ADELIE PENGUIN Pygoscelis adeliae [Manchot d’Adélie] L 70cm. White eyering diagnostic; eyering lacking in white-chinned Imm. Pelagic, rare at mainland. Soft, hoarse trumpeting. Off NZ. 2.10 CHINSTRAP PENGUIN Pygoscelis antarcticus [Manchot à jugulaire] L 75cm. Unmistakable. Pelagic, rare at islands. Soft, goose-like squeaks in series of 1–5. Off NZ.

3 Penguins

3.1 FIORDLAND (NZCrested) PENGUIN Eudyptes pachyrhynchus [Gorfou du Fiordland] L 55cm. Note whitish cheek stripes (in most individuals), lack of bare skin at bill base and little black at tips of underflippers. Breeds in colonies in rainforest or in caves along rocky shores; forages in nearby seas, outside Br season probaby pelagic. Very high, excited quacking. NZ. Absent March–June. R

3.2 SNARES (NZCrested) PENGUIN Eudyptes robustus [Gorfou des Snares] L 60cm. Note pink bare skin at bill base, robust bill and narrow yellow eyebrow. Black crown feathers not or hardly erectile. Colonies in muddy areas or on rocky flats with shading forest and other vegetation; outside Br season pelagic. Very high, hoarse quacking. NZ. R

3.3 ERECT-CRESTED PENGUIN Eudyptes sclateri [Gorfou huppé] L 65cm. From 3.2 by broader, yellow eyebrow, kept erect over eye. Breeds in rocky areas without vegetation. Outside Br season pelagic. Very high, nasal, shivering quacking. NZ. R

3.4 ROCKHOPPER PENGUIN⁶ Eudyptes chrysocome [Gorfou sauteur] L 50cm. Rather small posture, small bill, yellow eyebrow spreading fanwise behind eye. Nom. (a) differs from ssp moseleyi (b) by extent of black pattern at underflipper and presence of naked skin at bill base. Breeds in rocky places, gentle tussock slopes or under vegetation. Outside Br season pelagic. Low, Mallard-like quacking, sometimes in dancing series. NZ. R

3.5 ROYAL PENGUIN Eudyptes schlegeli [Gorfou de Schlegel] L 70cm. From other Eudyptes penguins by white cheeks. Colonies mainly on stony ground without vegetation. Pelagic after breeding. Mid-high, drawn-out braying. NZ 1,2,4,5–7 R

3.6 MACARONI PENGUIN Eudyptes chrysolophus [Gorfou doré] L 70cm. From 3.5 by all-black head, pink naked skin at bill base and different crest ‘style’. Breeds in rocky, flat to steep places, normally without vegetation. Probably pelagic after breeding. High, Mallard-like quacking, sometimes in short rattles. NZ 5,7.

3.7 YELLOW-EYED PENGUIN Megadyptes antipodes [Manchot antipode] L 65cm. Unmistakable by yellow eyes and streak from eye to hindcrown. Breeds in dense vegetation on shores and slopes. Pelagic after breeding. High-pitched wrritwrritwrrit. NZ 1–7. R E.NZ

3.8 LITTLE PENGUIN Eudyptula minor [Manchot pygmée] L 42cm. Note slaty blue upperparts without distinctive markings to head. Some variation in width of white flipper margins (a and b). Small colonies on rocky flats and slopes; also in sand dunes. Varied: e.g. soft, drawn-out, mumbled croaking or high, rather hoarse screams. NZ 1–4.

3.9 MAGELLANIC PENGUIN Spheniscus magellanicus [Manchot de Magellan] L 70cm. Unmistakable by head pattern and double breast-band. Vagrant from S America to bays of NZ and Australia. Braying sneezes. NZ 1.

4 Albatrosses

4.1 WANDERING ALBATROSS⁷ Diomedea exulans [Albatros hurleur] W 303cm. Separation from 4.2 only possible at close range when lack of black line along cutting edge of upper mandible visible. Field identification to ssp and age on base of plumage features in most cases not possible. Passes through about 7 stages (stages (St) 1–4 and 7 shown, stages 5 and 6 not shown) before attaining full Ad. plumage. This process, that can take up to 16 years, can stop in any stage so that for instance some can retain parts (e.g. black tail feathers) or the complete Juv. plumage (stage 1) during their whole life. tend to become whiter than . Shown Nom. (a), ssp gibsoni (b) and ssp antipodensis (c). Open ocean. Varied, e.g. very low purring, bill rattling, nasal gackling, etc. Breeds NZ 6–8.

4.2 ROYAL ALBATROSS⁸ Diomedea epomophora [Albatros royal] W 328cm. From 4.1 by black cutting edge of bill. In all but Juv. stage the tail is white (unlike 4.1), so a large albatross with white wing patch combined with all-white tail is always this species. No dark brown Juv. stage and less Imm. stages than 4.1, especially in ssp sanfordi (a, Nothern Royal Albatross) where Juvs moult direct into Ad. plumage. Note difference between 4.2a with solid black wings and Nom. (b, Southern Royal Albatross); in the latter the wings of Ad. are mainly white. Breeds on flat or gently sloping ground. Nests sheltered by rocks or low vegetation but needs gently sloping, exposed sites for take-off and landing. Otherwise open ocean. Low, rhythmic or puffed-out grunts and mumblings. Also bill rattling. Breeds NZ 4,6,7. 4.3 KELP (or NZSouthern Black-backed) GULL Larus dominicanus [Goéland dominicain] L 60cm. Frontal view for comparison of size with 4.1–2. See also 52.1. 4.4 BLACK-BROWED ALBATROSS Thalassarche melanophris [Albatros à sourcils noirs] W 230cm. Frontal view for comparison of size with 4.1–2. See also 6.3.

5 Albatrosses

5.1 BLACK-FOOTED ALBATROSS Phoebastria nigripes [Albatros à pieds noirs] W 203cm. Note white at bill base and in Ad. (showing more white at face sides than Juv.) white under- and uppertail coverts. Ad. can look very bleached-out overall. Bill and feet dusky pink. Cf. Juv. 5.3 (with bright pink bill and paler underside of flight feathers) and Juv. of much larger 4.1 (with white face mask). Offshore and open ocean. Duck-like qaucking, thin, nasal mumbling and high, smooth squeaks. Also bill clapping. Breeds NW Ha, Ma. Wanders S to Equator. V NZ

5.2 LAYSAN ALBATROSS Phoebastria immutabilis [Albatros de Laysan] W 199cm. Note dark patch around eyes. Underwings can vary like shown (a and b, not age related). Note range. Open ocean. Bleating, shivering calls and bill snapping. Breeds NW Ha. Wanders mainly N.

5.3 SHORT-TAILED ALBATROSS Phoebastria albatrus [Albatros à queue courte] W 221cm. Yellowish head of Ad. diagnostic. More extensive than in 4.1 and 4.2, that often show yellow smear between cheeks and nape. Underside of flight feathers in Juv. rather pale. Note characteristic pattern of upperwings like shown in Imm. and Ad. Open ocean. Off Ha. R

6 Albatrosses

6.1 GREY-HEADED ALBATROSS Thalassarche chrysostoma [Albatros à tête grise] W 192cm. From 6.2 by greyer head, more black to leading edge of underwing and yellow lower ridge to bill. Rather similar to 6.4, but note that yellow starts narrowly at upper ridge of bill. Juv. with dark underwings like Juv. 6.3, but differs by white, not grey head. Offshore and open ocean. Mid-high, nasal bleating. Breeds NZ 7. R

6.2 YELLOW-NOSED ALBATROSS⁹ Thalassarche chlororhynchos [Albatros à nez jaune] W 200cm. Shown are Nom. (a, with grey head) and ssp bassi/carteri (b, with white head). From 6.4 by lack of black mark in axillaries. Lack of yellow line along lower mandible in Ad. diagnostic. Note narrow black leading edge of underwings. Inshore and offshore. High, scratchy bleating or raspy wuc-wuc-wuc. Off NZ.

6.3 BLACK-BROWED ALBATROSS¹⁰ Thalassarche melanophris [Albatros à sourcils noirs] W 230cm. Shown are dark-eyed Nom. (a) and pale-eyed ssp impavida (b). b might show slightly more extensive black than a to underwings (not shown). Yellow bill and lack of grey to head diagnostic in Ad. Juv. with black bill and dark underwings shows complete or partial grey breast-band. Breeds on cliff ridges and ledges. Offshore and pelagic. Breeds NZ 5,7,8.

6.4 SHY (or NZWhite-capped) ALBATROSS¹¹ Thalassarche cauta [Albatros à cape blanche] W 234cm. 4 ssps in the area: Nom. (NZTasmanian Albatross not shown; resembles b), steadi (a, NZNew Zealand White-capped Albatross), salvini (b, NZSalvin’s Albatross) and eremita (c NZChatham Island Albatross). a, b and c breed in the area. Black diagnostic mark in axillaries, where black leading edge of wings meets body. Colour of bill and saturation of grey or brown to head differ among ssps, but all ssps show narrow black leading edge to underwings. Breeds on level places in rocky, broken areas. Offshore. High, drawn-out, slightly shivering, lowing or toneless, nasal twittering and braying. Breeds NZ 4–6,8. R

6.5 BULLER’S ALBATROSS Thalassarche bulleri¹² [Albatros de Buller] W 209cm. Two ssps: Nom. (a, Northern Buller’s Albatross): note broad yellow base to yellow line along culmen; and ssp platei (b, NZSouthern Buller’s Albatross, with a greyer forehead). b differs from a mainly in timing of breeding (a breeds 2–3 months later than b). Bill of b is supposed to be slightly broader, black eyebrow longer between eye and base of bill and forehead and crown silvery grey, not silvery white like a, but all these features may vary. From Ad. 6.1 also by clear-cut black leading edge to underwings. Breeds on slopes, ridges and tops of rocky slopes with sparse, low vegetation. Inshore, offshore and open ocean. Braying notes and drawn-out lowing. a breeds NZ 4,5,12; b breeds NZ 4,11. R

7 Albatrosses & Giant Petrels

7.1 SOOTY ALBATROSS Phoebetria fusca [Albatros brun] W 203cm. Overall sooty brown, slightly darker on head. In worn plumage (b) paler on back, especially in neck, and then slightly similar to 7.2. Note that line along lower mandible is pale yellow. This line in Juv. very narrow and hardly visible. Vagrant over open sea. Off NZ. R

7.2 LIGHT-MANTLED (NZSooty) ALBATROSS Phoebetria palpebrata [Albatros fuligineux] W 200cm. Body and underwings paler-coloured than 7.1, especially on mantle. Line along lower mandible is white and narrower than that of 7.1. Juv. scalloped above and line along lower mandible hardly visible or absent. Rocky islands with vegetated cliffs and steep slopes. Drawn-out wails. Breeds NZ 6–8. R

7.3 HALL’S (or NZNorthern) GIANT PETREL Macronectes halli [Pétrel de Hall] W 190cm. Very similar to 7.4; main difference is colour of bill tip which in this species is red-brown. Eyes normally pale (sometimes brown), becoming even paler with age. No white plumage morph like 7.4. Imm. dark brown like Imm. 7.4, but with reddish bill tip. Coastal areas with some shelter of sparse vegetation, rocks, banks. Inshore, offshore and open ocean. Low, nasal grumbles and croaks. Breeds NZ 4,6–8. R

7.4 ANTARCTIC (or NZSouthern) GIANT PETREL Macronectes giganteus [Pétrel géant] W 195cm. From 7.3 mainly by pea-green bill tip. White morph (a, lacking in 7.3) is uncommon. Eyes normally brown but can be pale grey. Inshore and offshore. Low, nasal grumbles and croaks. NZ seas. R

8 Prions, Fulmars & Petrels

Note that most Prions show distinct M on wings, but cf. 9.3–4, 9.7–8, 10.1–2, 10.5–8, 11.1, 11.4–5, 12.3 and 14.2.8.1 BROAD-BILLED PRION Pachyptila vittata [Prion de Forster] W 62cm. Seemingly large-headed. Bill larger than the other 5 prions and coloured black (not grey like 8.2). Note steep forehead. Breeds in burrows or in caves and crevices in cliffs. Offshore and open ocean. Short, very low, rhythmic croaking. Breeds NZ 4,5.

8.2 SALVIN’S PRION Pachyptila salvini [Prion de Salvin] W 57cm. Separation from 8.1 and 8.3 probably impossible at sea. In the hand shows comb-like lamellae at base of closed bill. Bill grey. Inshore and offshore. Hoarse, rather excited croaking at different pitch. NZ seas.

8.3 ANTARCTIC PRION Pachyptila desolata [Prion de la Désolation] W 63cm. Smaller and bluer bill than 8.1 and – though collar more distinct – not safely separable from 8.2. Breeds in burrows and rock crevices; feeds offshore and in open ocean. Low, hoarse and falsetto croaking (not unlike statics on radio). Breeds NZ 6,8.

8.4 SLENDER- (or NZThin-)BILLED PRION Pachyptila belcheri [Prion de Belcher] W 56cm. The M on wings less distinct than 8.1–8.3, especially in worn plumage (a). Note small, narrow bill and extensive, distinct white eyebrow, giving pale-faced expression. Inshore, offshore and open ocean. NZ seas.

8.5 FAIRY PRION Pachyptila turtur [Prion colombe] W 56cm. Note indistinct facial pattern and narrow M on wings. At sea not safely separable from 8.6. Breeds in burrows or in rock crevices and caves. Feeds offshore and in open ocean. High, excited croaking. Breeds NZ 4,5,8.

8.6 FULMAR PRION¹³ Pachyptila crassirostris [Prion à bec épais] W 60cm. Difficult to separate at sea from smaller-billed 8.5 with similar pale face pattern; best distinction said to be its ‘looping’ flight. Breeds in crevices and in tunnels in cliffs. At sea, inshore and offshore. Low, hoarse, at times bouncing croaking. Breeds NZ 4–6,9.

8.7 ANTARCTIC PETREL Thalassoica antarctica [Pétrel antarctique] W 105cm. Note characteristic pattern of upperparts with contrasting white secondaries and tail. Inshore and offshore. Low, hoarse croaks. Breeds NZ 8. R

8.8 NORTHERN FULMAR Fulmarus glacialis [Fulmar boréal] W 107cm. Pale morph (b) more blotchy, less solid pearl-grey above and its dark morph (b, only morph yet seen near Hawaii) is darker than the Atlantic ssp glacialis (which does not occur in the area). Offshore. Off Ha. R

8.9 SOUTHERN (or NZAntarctic) FULMAR Fulmarus glacialoides [Fulmar argenté] W 118cm. Note diagnostic contrasting wing pattern with white flash on outer wings more contrastingly patterned above than 8.4. From gulls by gliding flight on stiff wings. Offshore and open ocean. High, hoarse, subdued shrieks. Breeds NZ 8.

9 Petrels

9.1 TAHITI PETREL Pterodroma rostrata [Pétrel de Tahiti] W 84cm. Very similar to 10.3, which see. Note the pale stripe down centre of underwings, sharp demarcation on chest and rather pale uppertail coverts. Flies with straight wings held perpendicular to body, alternating deep wingbeats with banking glides and arcs. Breeds in burrows on mountain slopes with thick forest cover. Forages at open sea. Nasal, drawn-out shrieks at varying pitch. Breeds FrPo 3,4,19, Co 1. R

9.2 FIJI PETREL Pterodroma macillivrayi [Pétrel des Fidji] W 68cm. Characterised by small size and uniform brown plumage. From 12.5 by lack of paler wingbar. Breeding grounds unknown; presumed to forage offshore. Fi 10. R E.Fi

9.3 GOULD’S PETREL¹⁴ Pterodroma leucoptera [Pétrel de Gould] W 70cm. Note small size, black cap, narrow underwing markings and dark M across wings. Offshore and open seas. Very high, sharp, nasal shrieks tfeet-tfeet—. A.Sa 2. Fi, Co. R (see also 11.4).

9.4 BLACK-WINGED PETREL Pterodroma nigripennis [Pétrel à ailes noires] W 67cm. From 9.3 by paler cap and darker, broader underwing markings. Offshore and open seas. Digs nest burrows under scrub and tussocks or breeds in rock crevices. High, hollow, mourning twoot notes in series of 3–20. Also high, nasal and falsetto shrieks. Breeds NZ 4,10,11, FrPo 30.

9.5 PROVIDENCE PETREL Pterodroma solandri [Pétrel de Solander] W 100cm. Head contrastingly darker. Note white markings at bill base and pale base of primaries on underwings. Very similar to 9.6, 10.4 (dark morph), 11.2 and 11.3, which see. Offshore and open seas. Nests in burrows or rock crevices, often within forest. Breeds also on sparsely vegetated cliffs. High, upslurred eeuuh-eeuuh—. Disperses N after breeding Lord Howe I. R

9.6 GREAT-WINGED PETREL¹⁵ Pterodroma macroptera [Pétrel noir] W 99cm. Nom. (a, with little white at bill base) shown and ssp gouldi (b, NZGrey-faced Petrel, with more white in face). From 9.5 by more uniform plumage and little or no pale flash on outer underwings. Offshore and open ocean. Nests in burrows or crevices under clumps of vegetation. Breeds islands and mainland N NZ 1.

9.7 SOFT-PLUMAGED PETREL Pterodroma mollis [Pétrel soyeux] W 89cm. Polymorph, pale (a) and rare dark (b) morphs shown. Note that collar is closed across breast and that more or less distinct pattern of underwings (often appearing uniform dark) resembles pattern of upperwings. Offshore and open ocean. Breeds in burrows under dense cover. Very high, drawn-out, wailing shrieks. Breeds NZ 8.

9.8 WHITE-HEADED PETREL Pterodroma lessonii [Pétrel de Lesson] W 109cm. Note white head and pale grey rump and tail, contrasting with darker wings and mantle. Offshore and open ocean. Breeds in burrows under tussocks, ferns, low shrub, often in open grassland. Low croaks and series sounding as if produced by a dry bicycle pump. Breeds NZ 6,8.

9.9 MAGENTA (or NZChatham I. Taiko) PETREL Pterodroma magentae [Pétrel de Magenta] W 102cm. From 9.1 by different underwing pattern, from 10.3 mainly by range. Offshore. Breeds in dense forest. Breeds NZ 4. R

10 Petrels

10.1 CHATHAM PETREL Pterodroma axillaris [Pétrel des Chatham] W 67cm. Diagnostic underwing pattern, in which carpal joint is connected by bar to rear edge where touching body. Offshore and open ocean. Breeds in burrows in soft clay under vegetation clumps and tussocks. Very high, rapid, staccato tseetseetsee in flight. Breeds NZ 4. R

10.2 MOTTLED PETREL Pterodroma inexpectata [Pétrel maculé] W 85cm. Underparts with diagnostic broad bar across underwings and brownish belly. Nests in burrows in rocky ground and tussock grassland. High, thin shrieks in short, slightly lowered series. Breeds NZ 3,5. R

10.3 PHOENIX PETREL Pterodroma alba [Pétrel à poitrine blanche] W 83cm. Very similar to 9.1, 9.9 and 11.3, but underwings solid brown except narrow white line along leading edge. Offshore and open ocean. Breeds not in burrows, but on the ground at sheltered sites under trees or bushes. High, sharp bickering, down-slurred at the end. Breeds Ki, FrPo 3, Pi. R

10.4 KERMADEC PETREL Pterodroma neglecta [Pétrel des Kermadec] W 92cm. Polymorph, dark (a) morph and pale (b) morphs shown; most common is intermediate morph (not shown). All morphs generally difficult to separate from similar petrels (e.g. 9.5, 11.2 and 11.3) but white primary shafts on upperwings (hard to see) diagnostic. Nests on cliffs or slopes with little vegetation. Long, drawn-out, mourning shrieks and bleating, changing in pitch. Breeds NZ 10. R

10.5 JUAN FERNANDEZ PETREL Pterodroma externa [Pétrel de Juan Fernandez] W 97cm. Note large size and narrow black bar to underwings. Often shows horseshoe-like white base to upper tail. Breeds outside the area. Short series of mewing and trumpet-like notes. Also drawn-out hooting. Breeds Juan Fernandez Is, Chile, from where disperses north. R

10.6 WHITE-NECKED (or NZWhite-naped) PETREL Pterodroma cervicalis [Pétrel à col blanc] W 100cm. White neck diagnostic but beware of individuals of 10.5 with pale grey neck. Offshore and open seas. May nest in burrows (Kermadecs). Breeds NZ 10. R

10.7 STEJNEGER’S PETREL Pterodroma longirostris [Pétrel de Stejneger] W 60cm. Note narrow black bar to underwings, similar to 10.8, but shows darker upperparts. Offshore and open sea. Nests in burrows under ferns. Breeds Juan Fernandez Is, Chile, from where disperses north. R

10.8 COOK’S PETREL Pterodroma cookii [Pétrel de Cook] W 65cm. Cf. 10.7. Upper parts paler grey than other small petrels. Breeds in burrows near ridges or steep slopes in thick forest. Mid-high, nasal chatters. Breeds NZ 12 and other small islands off NZ. R

11 Petrels

11.1 PYCROFT’S PETREL Pterodroma pycrofti [Pétrel de Pycroft] W 53cm. Note small size and narrow black line from wrist to body. In general darker than 10.8 and with less extensive dark patch around eye than 10.7. Offshore. Nests in burrows in forest. Very high peepeep-puh (last part much lower). Main colonies at islands off N NZ 1. R

11.2 MURPHY’S PETREL Pterodroma ultima [Pétrel de Murphy] W 97cm. From 10.4 (dark morph) by indistinct M pattern on upperwings and lack of white primary shafts. Offshore and open seas. Breeds openly on the ground, usually next to some wind protection. High barking and low, hollow, drawn-out wailing. Breeds FrPo, Co, Pi.

11.3 HERALD PETREL Pterodroma arminjoniana [Pétrel hérault] W 95cm. Polymorph, most common are intermediates (not shown) between dark (a) and pale (b) morphs. Note underwing pattern. Offshore and open seas. Surface breeder at sheltered sites. Drawn-out whinnying and bickering. Breeds Ton, Co 1, FrPo, Pi.

11.4 GOULD’S PETREL Pterodroma leucoptera [Pétrel de Gould] W 70cm. Note blackish cap, indistinct M pattern on upperwings and broad black mark along leading edge of underwings. Offshore and open seas. Nests in gullies and on slopes with palm cover. Very high, sharp, nasal shrieks tfeet-tfeet—. A.Sa 2, Fi, Co. R (see also 9.3).

11.5 BONIN PETREL Pterodroma hypoleuca [Pétrel des Bonin] W 67cm. Underwing pattern diagnostic. Offshore and open seas. Burrow breeder in sandy soils with vegetation. Low, very soft, rattling croaks. Breeds Ha 13–18, NMa.

11.6 HAWAIIAN PETREL Pterodroma sandwichensis [Pétrel des Hawaï] W 91cm. Note characteristic dark cap and lack of M pattern on upperwings. Offshore and open seas. Breeds in burrows or crevices under vegetation high on mountain slopes. High, hollow, three-syllabled hoots and mid-high, slightly squeaking or croaking calls. Breeds Ha 1,2,4,5,7. R E.Ha

11.7 HENDERSON PETREL Pterodroma atrata [Pétrel de Henderson] W 90cm. From dark 10.4 by lack of white primary shafts. Surface nester in dense forest. Undulating shivering twitter. Breeds Pi.

12 Petrels

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