Е. П. Бочарова, Н. А. Свиридюк, О. И. Тараненко

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК ДЛЯ СПЕЦИАЛИСТОВ В ОБЛАСТИ МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫХ ОТНОШЕНИЙ

Учебное пособие

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Информация о книге

УДК 811.111(075)

ББК 81.2Англ

Б86

Авторы:

Бочарова Е. П., Свиридюк Н. А., Тараненко О. И.

Рецензенты:

Беляева С. А. — канд. филол. наук, профессор (Дальрыбвтуз);

Губайдулина Т. А. — канд. пед. наук, профессор (ВГУЭС).

Цель пособия — развитие навыков чтения, говорения и письма. Тексты для перевода на английском языке составлены по материалам новейших источников научно-популярной литературы с учетом языковых явлений, рассматриваемых в тренировочных упражнениях.

Предназначено для студентов III–IV курсов факультета международных отношений.

УДК 811.111(075)

ББК 81.2Англ

© Дальневосточный государственный технический университет, 2007

© ДВФУ, 2015

© ООО «Проспект», электронная версия книги, 2015

Предисловие

Настоящее пособие предназначено для студентов III и IV курсов факультетов и институтов, готовящих специалистов в области международных отношений. Цель пособия – развитие навыков профессионально-ориентированного чтения, говорения и письма.

Пособие состоит из шести глав, каждая из которых содержит два-три раздела. Тексты подобраны по тематическому принципу: “Международные отношения”, “Дипломатия, переговоры и ведение переговоров”, “Дипломатический корпус”, “Терроризм”, “Война и международные конфликты”, “Международные организации”.

Материал пособия дается в логической последовательности, что формирует у студентов целостное представление о предлагаемых темах. Тексты подобраны с учетом их познавательной ценности и содержат ключевую терминологию по специальности. Послетекстовые упражнения направлены не только на контроль и самоконтроль прочитанного, но и включают задания условно-коммуникативного, коммуникативного и творческого характера, ставящие целью подготовить студентов к самостоятельному высказыванию по изучаемой теме.

Каждая глава заканчивается обзорными упражнениями, которые включают задания для самостоятельной работы с оригинальной литературой по специальности.

В приложении даются тексты для дополнительного чтения, тесты для самоконтроля знаний, ключи и глоссарий. Глоссарий, входящий в пособие, помогает студентам усвоить понятийную систему в области международных отношений.

Пособие может быть рекомендовано для профессорско-преподавательского состава, аспирантов и студентов.

Unit 1.
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

SECTION 1

WORDS AND TERMS TO BE REMEMBERED

to cause

issue

complexity

interdependence

complicated

liberty

daily lives

legal

to deny

to justify

to dominate

property

embassy

to occur

to deplete

prudent

international relations

precious

international system

treaty

nation-state

relevant

Why Study International Relations?

International relations is deeply relevant in our lives. Now this proposition may not be self-evident, and so, before we get about business of trying to understand international relations, it is only fair that we try to justify why we should study it in the first place. The study of international relations is relevant and important for many reasons. Indeed, an individual’s liberty, property, and job – even his or her life – may depend on events that occur in the relations between nations.

War and regional conflicts continue to be an unfortunate but very real feature of modern international relations – a feature that promises to touch the lives of many young people, whether or not they recognize its relevance.

For individuals who like to travel, international relations presents a host of challenges. Travel documents, visas, and passports must be obtained in order to leave one country and enter another legally. Foreign currencies must be converted into the local currency. In addition, travelers are exposed to the dangers of hijacking and terrorist attack. Prudent travelers learn the location of the nearest embassy or consulate, in case they run into difficulty in a foreign country.

There is precious little that we discuss – whether it is the weather, the quality of the air we breathe, the price of a cup of tea, the sunburn we got over the weekend, or the stock market clash – that isn’t affected in some way by international relations. Weather reports are commonly collected by weather satellites that are governed by international treaties; pollution spills that do not stop at a nation’s borders cause international environmental and public health problems; a freeze in Brazil causes a hike in the price of coffee beans and in the cost of a cup of coffee in Akron; industrial pollutants deplete the global ozone layer, leading to a higher incidence of skin cancers. International relations is relevant to our daily lives, and we deny this fact only at great peril. The world is a big and complicated place. No one government or country can claim to control or dominate it. In fact, perceptions about the world, about who is responsible for its problems and about how its problems should be solved differ greatly from one country to another.

The real causes of the nation’s changing position in world politics are multipolarity and interdependence. As a result of multipolarity, power in the global economy has increasingly spread among other countries. And as a consequence of the increased complexity of international interdependence, no one country has the potential to exercise decisive influence over the whole international system. Complexity derives from more actors, more issues, greater interactions, and less hierarchy in international system as a whole.

WORD STUDY

Exercise 1. Give Russian equivalents of the following expressions:

to be deeply relevant in smth; unfortunate feature of relations; to present a host of challenges; the real causes of changing position; to exercise influence over system; less hierarchy in international system.

Exercise 2. Give English equivalents of the following expressions:

зависеть от событий; международные отношения; частная свобода; происходить в отношениях между народами; затрагивать жизни людей; уехать из страны; въехать в страну; иностранная валюта; расположение ближайшего посольства, столкнуться с трудностями; спутники; международное соглашение; отрицать факт...; сильно отличаться от...; влиять на международную систему; уменьшать озоновый слой.

Exercise 3. Match each word or expression on the left with the correct on the right:

1) liberty

1) the state of being free from oppression

2) to depend on

2) any object or value owned or lawfully acquired

3) property

3) to be determined or conditioned

4) to deplete

4) to exhaust

5) prudent

5) cautious, managing very carefully

6) issue

6) a matter of importance to solve

Exercise 4. Fill in the box with all derivatives. Consult the dictionary.

Noun

Verb

Adjective

Adverb

relation

legally

complication

understand

decisive

justify

dependent

Exercise 5. Arrange the following words into pairs of synonyms:

place, to dominate, to deplete, prudent, to control, to exhaust, cautious, treaty, to understand, complicated, agreement, to realize, complex, position.

Exercise 6. Explain the meaning of the following words and expressions. Make up sentences with each of them:

to be relevant; to present a host of challenges; hijacking; prudent travelers; to run into difficulty; at great peril; multipolarity; complexity.

MISCELLANEOUS

historic     historical

Explanatory Notes

Historic adj. Noted or famous in history, e.g. a historic spot, a historic speech, historic times (of which the history is known and recorded as contrasted with prehistoric times).

Historical adj. 1. Belonging to the history e.g. historical events and people. 2. Having to do with history, e.g. historical studies, a historical society, historical principles.

Historic implies the significance, importance, fame, etc. of a person or thing. Historical emphasizes the fact that a person (or thing) belongs to the past or has to do with history. Both adjectives can be translated into Russian as исторический. This Russian word has the following meanings:

1. исторический, имеющий историческое значение (=historic);

2. исторический, исторически достоверный, относящийся к истории.

Exercise 1. Translate the following phrases into Russian; use them in sentences or situations:

historical science

a historic event

historic times

historical evidence

a historic date

to play a historic part

a historical approach

of historical importance

a historic decision

Exercise 2. Paraphrase the following phrases using one of the words under discussion.

1. A real, not imaginary event.

2. A document serving as a source of history.

3. A place famous in history.

4. A speech famous in history.

5. A branch of linguistics which describes the evolution of languages.

Exercise 3. Complete and expand on the following sentences using one of the words under discussion.

l. It’s necessary that we should preserve...

2. This statesman has played...

3. The speech he made at the latest congress...

4. I am very fond of…

5. Westminster Abbey is a well known...

Exercise 4. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Исторический подход к вопросу является залогом объективного исследования.

2. Этот исторический документ был подписан несколько лет назад.

3. Исторические причины прекращения отношений между этими странами прояснили обстановку.

4. Подписание договора о международных отношениях имело историческое значение.

5. В каждой стране много исторических памятников и музеев.

Exercise 5. Make up a list of nouns that go with the adjectives historic and historical; use several of the resulting phrases in dialogues or situations.

SPEECH EXERCISES

Exercise 1. Find facts in the text to prove the following.

1. The study of international relations is relevant and important for many reasons.

2. For individuals who like to travel, international relations presents a host of challenges.

3. International relations is relevant to our daily lives.

4. The real causes of the nation’s changing position in world politics are multipolarity and independence.

Exercise 2. Make a list of reasons for studying international relations. Compare it with the lists of your groupmates and discuss it.

SECTION 2

WORDS AND TERMS TO BE REMEMBERED

adjust

entity

ancient

ethnic

alliance

impact

applicability

negotiation

actor

political science

distribution

psychologist

dimension

scholar

to determine

theologian

to define

threat

encompass

What Is International Relations?

What is international relations, and how does it differ from other fields of study? International relations flow from contacts and interactions among countries, such as political interactions among governments, such as wars, alliances, diplomatic relations, negotiations, and threats of military force. Traditionally, students of international relations have studied these political interactions almost exclusively. However, economic, cultural, religious, racial and ethnic ties, and relations between people living in separately organized territories may also fall within the proper sphere of international relations.

As a field of study, international relations is relatively new and is difficult to define precisely. Although international relations first appeared as a field of study only about seventy years ago, the study of history, economics, and government (or politics) comes from the ancient Greeks. To be sure, even the ancients studied international relations but usually as an adjust to history or politics. In most American universities, international relations is considered one of the major subfields of political science. But, in fact, many scholars who consider themselves students of international relations are not political scientists. International relations is interdisciplinary in character and, thus, defining its precise boundaries as a field is difficult.

Students of international relations include mathematicians (who build mathematical models of arms races), economists (who study the international trade and monetary system), psychologists (who study the role of perception in international decision making), lawyers (who study international law), theologians (who study the moral implications of international policy), historians (who study diplomatic history and the evolution of the state system), sociologists (who study group behavior among nations), and anthropologists (who study and compare the interactions of cultures). Even physicists and biologists study international relations. Physicists have been active in the nuclear weapons field and have voiced concerns about the impact of new weapons systems on international relations. Biologists, on the other hand, have studied theories of aggression in the animal kingdom and their applicability to international phenomena such as war. The unifying thread among students in these different fields is the study of interactions between and among separately constituted governments, societies, and peoples.

Important events occurring between and within states affect international relations. This concept raises another issue for the student of international relations to consider: the level-of-analysis problem. To add some clarity and order to the exploration of the various dimensions of international relations, it is useful to differentiate the five levels of analysis: the individual level, the subnational group level, the national level, the regional level, and the international (or systematic) level.

Clearly, individuals, especially key decision makers such as presidents and foreign ministers, have an impact on international relations. Their thoughts, perceptions, and attitudes can determine whether a nation goes to war or stay at peace. Certainly, the behaviors of subnational interest group, governmental departments, and agencies that influence or formulate a country’s foreign policy should also be studied carefully.

Nation-states are the dominant actors in IR, and their behavior has attracted the greatest amount of interest among students and scholars. But nation-states also have regional relations; they form trade blocks, alliances, and international organizations to help achieve their mutual interests. These regional organizations, in turn, can affect the policies of nations. Finally, the nation-state lives in an international environment as well. The international system level encompasses all international interactions, regional systems, and the overall distribution of power between states. A state ignores the structure of the international system as a whole at its peril. The serious student of IR should be interested in how entities at each level of analysis affect IR, but also in how each level of analysis is affected by the other levels.

WORD STUDY

Exercise 1. Give Russian equivalents of the following expressions:

threat of military force; ethnic ties; to define precisely; to study as an adjust to history; arms race; group behaviour among nations; the impact of new weapons systems; the level-of-analysis problem; dimensions of international relations; to have an impact on; the dominant actors of international relations; to form trade blocks, alliances; to achieve mutual interests.

Exercise 2. Match each word or expression on the left with the correct definition on the right:

1) to adjust

1) to divide among many; to deliver; classify

2) to impact

2) an expression or warning of intent to do harm

3) to distribute

3) to strike or affect forcefully

4) threat

4) to make work correctly; to regulate

5) precise

5) an indirect expression

6) attitude

6) exact; definite

7) implication

7) a mental position; the feeling one has for oneself

Exercise 3. Give English equivalents of the following expressions and make up your own sentences with them:

области изучения; дипломатические отношения; переговоры; расовые и культурные связи; определить точные границы; международное право; сравнивать взаимосвязь культур; ядерное оружие; влиять на международные отношения; животный мир; события, происходящие между и внутри государств; прояснить; достигать взаимовыгодных интересов.

Exercise 4. Give all possible word combinations with the following verbs and translate them into Russian:

to define; to occur; to determine; to encompass; to deplete; to adjust; to distribute; to dominate.

SPEECH EXERCISES

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions.

1. What do International Relations flow from?

2. What may fall within the proper sphere of International Relations?

3. When did International Relations first appear as a field of study?

4. Whom do students of International Relations include?

5. How are physicists, biologists connected with the field of International Relations?

6. What is the level-of-analysis problem?

7. What can influence and formulate country’s foreign policy?

8. Nation-states are the dominant actors in International Relations, aren’t they?

9. How does International Relations differ from other fields of study?

Exercise 2. Expand on the following statements.

1. International Relations flow from contacts and interactions among countries.

2. International Relations developed synthetically, not organically.

3. Important events occurring between and within states affect International Relations.

Exercise 3. Read the following definition of International Relations, made by Charles McClelland. Give your own definition of International Relations; comment on it; compare it with your groupmates’ ones.

“The outermost boundaries of International Relations are suggested if we imagine all of the exchanges, transactions, contacts, flows of information, and actions of every kind going on at this moment of time between and among the separately constituted societies of the world. To this picture in the mind, we should add the effects created within societies from all such interflowing events in earlier times both off the immediate and the more remote past. Finally, the stream of these actions and responses should be conceived as moving on to the future of tomorrow and beyond, accompanied by the expectations, plans, and proposals of all observers of the phenomena”.

Unit 2.
DIPLOMACY, NEGOTIATIONS AND BARGAINING

SECTION 1

WORDS AND TERMS TO BE REMEMBERED

ambassador

to encompass

array

envoy

attach

to engage in

to attach

involvement

boundary

immunity

to conduct

refugee

contemporary

to negotiate

to comply

to pursue

comprehensive

to presume

ad hoc gathering

treasury

crashworthness

shrinkage

to circumvent

subsidiary

Diplomacy

The term “diplomacy” has taken on a variety of meanings in the international relations literature. Some writers view it as “an art of conducting negotiations in the process of implementing foreign policy”. Others use it interchangeably with foreign policy involving the entire foreign relations process. Or still others see it as “the process or method by which governments pursue foreign policy”. Whichever definition is used, logically there is no diplomacy without diplomats. So we can suggest the following definition of diplomacy: The conduct of relations between nation-states through their accredited officials for the purpose of advancing the interests of the appointing state. Although in popular usage diplomacy is used interchangeably with negotiation, these two terms have different, more precise applications.

The history of diplomacy predates modern international relations by centuries. It can be traced back to ancient times in China, India and Egypt when it primarily involved the delivery of message and warnings, the pleading of causes, and the transfer of gifts institutionalized in ancient Greece and Rome. Envoys became not only messengers but negotiators. However, the first permanent legations were not established until the fourteenth century under a system of independent city- states in what is now Italy. This ambassadorial system rapidly spread to the rest of Europe. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, two types of diplomatic representatives existed: ambassadors, who vied for precedence and protocol; and semiofficial agents, whose functions and access to authoritative sources of information were limited. At the Vienna conferences on Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities (1961) and on Consular Relations (1963), comprehensive agreements covering nearly all aspects of diplomatic activity were signed. These conferences divided the heads of diplomatic missions into three general categories. The first two categories comprise ambassadors and ministers, respectively, who are accredited (officially presented) to the head of the host state. The third category is made up of charge d’affaires, who are accredited to the foreign ministers (or secretary of state) of the host country. Once diplomatic relations are established between two governments by mutual consent, ambassadors and ministers are exchanged. They represent the head of state of the sending state and are received by the head of state of the host country.

All diplomats enjoy certain privileges and immunities. Although they expected to comply voluntarily with the host state’s laws and regulations, they are exempt from its criminal and civil jurisdiction, as well as from its taxation. Embassies are immune from searches, and ambassadors’ premises are viewed as small islands of sovereignty of the sending state.

WORD STUDY

Exercise 1. Give Russian equivalents of the following expressions:

an art of conducting negotiations; the process of implementing foreign policy; nation-states; the appointing state; application; to predate something by centuries; to be traced back to...; the pleading of causes; a system of independent city-states; to vie for precedence and protocol; semi-official agents; host state; to be made up of charge d’affaires; mutual consent; immunity; to be exempt from.

Exercise 2. Fill in this box with all derivatives. Consult the dictionary.

Verb

Noun

Adjective

Adverb

negotiation

pursue

attachedly

comprehensive

to engage

Exercise 3. Match each word or expression on the left with the correct definition on the right:

1) to encompass

1) to gain advantage; to avoid or go around

2) refugee

2) providing assistance in a lesser capacity

3) to circumvent

3) to make or become less

4) subsidiary

4) a person who flees to find safety

5) to shrink

5) to form a circle; to surround

6) array

6) to place or set in order

Exercise 4. Match each of the verbs in the left column with a suitable noun from the right column. Make up your own sentences with them:

to conduct

policy

foreign relations process

negotiations

to implement

agreements

delivery of warnings

regulations

to involve

laws

diplomatic relations

interests of appointing state

to array

sources of information

diplomatic missions

Exercise 5. Translate the following word-combinations. Consult the “Dictionary of Diplomacy”. Explain their meaning:

diplomatic asylum

diplomatic body

diplomatic climb-down

diplomatic file

diplomatic intercourse

diplomatic premises

diplomatic sell-out

diplomatic withdrawal

back-and- forth diplomacy

balance-of-power diplomacy

behind-the-scenes diplomacy

immoral diplomacy

low-key diplomacy

open diplomacy

short-sighted diplomacy

turtle-pace diplomacy

Exercise 6. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Дипломатия призвана своими средствами и методами не только реализовывать внешнеполитические решения, но и активно формировать их.

2. Дипломатия – это ведение международных отношений посредством переговоров; метод, при помощи которого эти отношения реализуются.

3. Решение международных проблем стало главной функцией дипломатии.

4. На этой конференции были подписаны всесторонние соглашения, охватывающие все аспекты дипломатической деятельности.

5. Его дипломатическая миссия заключалась в убеждении интересов государства-хозяина.

6. Все дипломаты обладают рядом привилегий и иммунитетом.

7. Сегодня ставится задача обучить дипломатов, политических и общественных деятелей технологии ведения переговоров.

MISCELLANEOUS

comprehensive comprehensible

Explanatory Notes

Comprehensive adj. Including much, inclusive, e.g. a comprehensive account; a comprehensive definition; comprehensive disarmament; comprehensive test ban treaty; comprehensive knowledge; comprehensive definition; comprehensive term.

Comprehensible adj. That can be understood fully; intelligible, e.g. a book that is comprehensible only to specialists; the statement does not begin to be comprehensible enough.

The adjectives comprehensive and comprehensible are not synonymous but they are sometimes confused because of their likeness. The Russian equivalents of these adjectives are as follows: comprehensive means обширный, всеобъемлющий, всесторонний, легко схватывающий; comprehensible mean: понятный, вразумительный.

Exercise 1. Translate the following phrases into Russian; use them in sentences or situations:

a comprehensive term

comprehensive knowledge

a comprehensible report

comprehensive research

a comprehensive survey

comprehensible relations

comprehensible explanations

comprehensive agreements

Exercise 2. Answer the following questions.

1. What kind of agreement can be called as comprehensive one?

2. What data can you find in a comprehensive survey devoted to a certain country?

3. Why is the problem of comprehensive disarmament so important?

4. What do you know about the comprehensive school in England? Why is it called so? What are its weak and strong points?

5. Is the Theory of International Relations a comprehensible subject to you?

Exercise 3. Paraphrase the following phrases and sentences using one of the words under discussion.

1. A problem beyond one’s comprehension.

2. A term of wide comprehension.

3. A word too difficult to understand.

4. Profound knowledge.

5. An intelligible treatise.

Exercise 4. Fill in the blanks using one of the words under discussion.

1. Even the very vocabulary of such moral problems would have been _____ not so long ago.

2. The Government should use its influence to secure the signing of a test ban treaty.

3. The professor did some _____ research before he wrote his book.

4. ____ agreements covering nearly all aspects of diplomatic activity were signed.

5. States now negotiate with one another on a _____ spectrum of issues.

Exercise 5. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Юристу-международнику необходимы всесторонние знания.

2. Его доклад о работе консульства не был достаточно исчерпывающим.

3. Эта книга доступна только специалистам.

4. Международные отношения – широкий термин.

5. Вице-премьер дал исчерпывающее объяснение этому историческому событию.

SPEECH EXERCISES

Exercise 1. Find facts in the text to explain and to prove the following statements.

1. The text “diplomacy” has taken on a variety of meanings in the International Relations literature.

2. The history of diplomacy predates modem International Relations by centuries.

3. There are three general categories of the heads of diplomatic missions.

4. All diplomats enjoy certain privileges and immunities.

Exercise 2. Write out from the text all definitions of the term “diplomacy”. Compare them. Write down your own one. Comment on it.

SECTION 2

WORDS AND TERMS TO BE REMEMBERED

assignment

conclave

bilateral aid

compliance

chancellor

constituent

disposal

mutation

envoy

primary negotiations

erroneous

proliferation

to evolve diplomacy

participate

external

preponderant majority

internal

summit

functional strata

shuttle diplomacy

foreign affairs

Functional Strata of Diplomacy

Evolving diplomacy reflects material changes in the conduct of foreign affairs. Among the more important are improvements in the technology of international communication and transportation; expanding relationships of governments to people abroad as well as at home; mistreatment of emissaries, threats of terrorism, and decline in compliance with the precepts of the Vienna conventions on diplomatic and consular status and immunities; and both quantitative and qualitative proliferation – of the society of nations, or nation interests, and of the functioning of the global diplomatic community.

The four functional strata of diplomacy are the summit, ministerial, traditional or professional, and technical.

Summit Diplomacy

In earlier times reigning monarchs personally managed both their external and internal affairs. Chronicles of the past recount the foreign relations exploits of emperors, kings, princes, and churchmen, as well as presidents, premiers, chancellors, and dictators. For centuries they determined foreign policy and communicated and negotiated with other foreign leaders. As the modern state developed, especially with the growth of democratic governance, chiefs of state came to play a less determinate role in foreign relations, and relied more on others – their heads of government, cabinet ministers, and eventually corps of professional diplomats. It is erroneous to maintain that personal diplomacy at the summit and ministerial levels is a new phenomenon.

Although the expression summit diplomacy first came to be popularly employed in the 1950s, as a form of state practice it is as old as history itself. Often conceived as pertaining primarily to top-level conferencing, it encompasses six distinguishable functions: making and enunciating policy, communicating personally with foreign leaders, commissioning personal representatives or special envoys, receiving visiting summit leaders, and undertaking such visits and tours abroad, in addition to participating in informal meetings and formal conferences.

Ministerial Diplomacy

Foreign ministers also engage personally in a great deal of international representation, conferencing, and other diplomatic activities. They not only exercise the customary function of meeting in their national capitals with foreign ambassadors, but also engage in fact-finding consultation tours abroad, spearhead troubleshooting missions, occasionally shuttle between foreign capitals, and attend many international agencies.

Foreign ministers systematically represent their governments in sessions of the Council of Europe, the European Community and other agencies. Ministerial- level representation also is common in the regional financial institutions.

Technical Diplomacy

Another innovation of the twentieth century is the increasing involvement of technicians and specialists in diplomatic practice, either as members of diplomatic teams or as primarily negotiators. In the first capacity, they are appointed as constituents of resident missions abroad and include experts on a variety of matters – agricultural, budgetary, consular, cultural, financial, foreign aid and assistance, health, intelligence, labor, legal, military, petroleum, refugee, scientific, trade, and other foreign affairs. This is exemplified by the appointment of commercial, military, treasury, and other functional attaches. Or they are attached to the staffs of conference representatives, and serve as counselors to delegates or as principals in the subsidiary machinery of these forums, such as conference committees, subcommittees, or technical drafting services. In this guise they are essentially advisory and auxiliary to the chief of mission or conference delegate and do not disadvantage the traditional diplomat.

In the second capacity, on the other hand, sometimes these specialists serve as primary representatives in negotiations on technical – as distinguished from political or diplomatic – matters. Because the scope of international concerns has broadened so enormously in recent decades and encompasses so many highly specialized subjects – a great deal of contemporary foreign relations focusing on them must be handled by experts, and the diplomatic need is met either by recruiting them into the professional foreign service, by encouraging diplomats to specialize, or by appointing outside experts to particular diplomatic assignments. The more governments deal internationally with such technical matters, the more they are likely to bypass the resident diplomat and turn to specialists to cope with them.

Conference Diplomacy

The shrinkage of world horizons, the achievements of scientific discovery and the technological revolution, and the growing interaction of states on an array of cultural, economic, financial, humanitarian, social, and technical as well as political, security, and legal affairs have broadened the scope of diplomacy enormously. In earlier times diplomatic relations were generally restricted to peace making, territorial disposition and boundaries, commerce and navigation, immigration, citizenship, extradition, and a limited number of other matters, which generally could be handled by the diplomats. States now negotiate with one another on a comprehensive spectrum of issues. These range, for example, from alliances to atomic waste disposal, from outer space and seabed resources to cell biology, from trade promotion to copyright problems, and including such more esoteric subjects as air hydrology, crashworthiness, desert locusts, spent fuel storage. This broadening of the substance of international affairs has augmented not only the functional quality, but also the degree of diplomatic contact and the number of bilateral and multilateral meetings, and has engendered the need for technical experts in the negotiation process.

Conference diplomacy, involved to cope with these requisites, generally circumvents the bilateral functions of resident ambassadors. It assumes the form of ad hoc gathering, occasional or regularized meetings, or periodic sessions of deliberative agencies of international organization. For descriptive taxonomical purposes, international meetings and conferences may be grouped into complex categories distinguished on the basis of their composition, subject matter, timing, objectives, and other differentiating factors.

One of its mutations – called “parliamentary diplomacy”, which is characterized as institutionalized conferencing – is conducted within permanent mechanisms founded on agreed constitutive acts, like the United Nations and other public international agencies. Delegates to such conferences and agencies vary – including chiefs of state and government, cabinet ministers, special high-level representatives, ambassadors, other professional diplomats, and technical experts. Whereas many delegates are career diplomats, sometimes on assignments additional to their regular resident missions, the preponderant majority are on special assignment to the delegation at particular conference or agency session. The cumulative consequence is that a major share of contemporary diplomacy is handled by this multipartite alternative to the traditional resident diplomatic mission.

Some summit meetings are informal. Occasionally they are devoted to signing ceremonies, such as those concerned with strategic weapons agreements – Nixon in Moscow, 1972; Ford in Vladivostok, 1974. Others are more formal conclaves, including those convened at Tehran, Yalta, and Postdam during World War II. Although the president is the primary representative of the nation in such conferences and meetings, he is usually accompanied by the secretary of state and a team of other top-level advisers and professional diplomats, unless the talks are very informal.

It is unrealistic to presume that the community of nations could handle by traditional bilateral representation, the needs that are currently served each year by these hundreds of individual conferences and sessions of international agencies. Many involve the interests and actions of dozens of state (sometimes numbering more than 150), and some take months and even years of arduous negotiations. In other words, much contemporary diplomatic business now dealt with by international conference could not be adequately handled by traditional missions and processes on a bipartite basis. This is far from saying that the customary function of resident ambassadors is no longer either necessary or important.

WORD STUDY

Exercise 1. Give Russian equivalents of the following expressions.

the conduct of foreign affairs; mistreatment of emissaries; to decline in compliance with the precepts of the Vienna conventions; national interests; summit diplomacy; ministerial diplomacy; traditional diplomacy; technical diplomacy; to manage external and internal affairs; corps of professional diplomats; top-level conferencing; foreign ambassador; fact-finding consultation; ministerial-level representation; primary negotiators; constituents of resident missions abroad; appointment of treasure, commercial attaches; to serve as counselors; technical drafting services; the scope of international concerns; to recruit somebody into the professional foreign service; the resident diplomat; the shrinkage of world horizons; comprehensive spectrum of issues; atomic waste disposal; cell biology; spent fuel storage; the form of ad hoc gathering; contemporary diplomacy; to be handled by the multipartite alternative; arduous negotiations; on bipartite basis.

Exercise 2. Fill in the box with all derivatives. Consult the dictionary

Verb

Noun

Adjective

Adverb

participate

erroneously

disposable

recruit

compliance

exaggerative

conduct

Exercise 3. Match each of the words in the first column with a suitable noun from the second column. Make up your own sentences with these expressions:

shuttle

diplomacy

contemporary

multilateral

bilateral

international

foreign

relations

technical

primary

ministerial

external

internal

meeting

high-level

Exercise 4. Arrange the following words into pairs of synonyms:

participate, affair, enormous, aid, take part, matter, immense, help, sparing assistance, economical, error, reside, evolve, mistake, live, talks, primary, negotiations, develop, basic.

Exercise 5. Explain the meaning of the following words and expressions:

a) spearhead troubleshooting missions;

b) primary negotiators;

c) ministerial-level representation;

d) the scope of international concerns;

e) on a bipartite basis;

f) ad hoc gathering

Exercise 6. Match each word or expression on the left with the correct definition on the right:

1) summit

1) having the power to elect a representative

2) to evolve

2) to have superior importance, influence, force

3) constituent

3) to develop

4) to preponderate

4) the meeting of the heads of the countries

5) envoy

5) a diplomatic representative who is dispatched on a special mission

6) bilateral aid

6) any form of aid or assistance given by a donor to a recipient country

Exercise 7. Translate the following sentences into English, using the vocabulary of the section.

1. Переговоры играют особую роль при урегулировании конфликтов.

2. Во второй половине XX века разнообразнее стали формы многосторонней дипломатии. Сегодня многосторонняя дипломатия проводится в рамках:

– международных организаций;

– конференций;

– многосторонних встреч в верхах;

– деятельности посольств.

3. Договоренности, скрепленные подписями высших должностных лиц государств, обеспечивают дополнительные гарантии выполнения достигнутых соглашений.

4. Объектом обсуждения и регулирования стали такие области, как, разоружение, терроризм и другие финансовые, экономические, политические вопросы.

5. Сейчас государства ведут переговоры друг с другом по широкому кругу проблем.

6. Существует несколько стадий переговоров, а именно: дебаты, урегулирование спорных вопросов, обсуждение компромиссов, выработка решений.

SPEECH EXERCISES

Exercise 1. Expand on the following statements.

1. Evolving diplomacy reflects material changes in the conduct of foreign affairs.

1. In earlier times reigning monarchs personally managed both their external and internal affairs.

2. Summit diplomacy encompasses six distinguishing functions.

3. Foreign ministers also engage personally in a great deal of diplomatic activities.

4. The innovation of the twentieth century is the increasing involvement of technicians and specialists in diplomatic practice.

5. States now negotiate with one another on a comprehensive spectrum of issues.

6. Conference diplomacy generally circumvents the bilateral functions of resident ambassador.

7. There is “parliamentary diplomacy”.

8. Some summit meetings are informal and others are formal.

Exercise 2. Fill in the table. Compare it with your groupmates’ ones. Which one is more detailed? Comment on the points you think the most important.

Type of diplomacy

Actors

Function

1. Summit Diplomacy

1. kings

2. presidents

1. communicating personally with foreign leaders

2.

2. Ministerial Diplomacy

3. Technical Diplomacy

4. Conference Diplomacy

Exercise 3. Make a list of characteristics of bilateral and multilateral diplomacy.

SECTION 3

WORDS AND TERMS TO BE REMEMBERED

assume

massive retaliation

assumption

most-favored-nation principle (MFN)

bargaining

mutually assured destruction (MAD)

commitment

normalization agreement

compellance

redistribution agreement

deterrence

resistance point

embargo

tacit negotiations

extension agreement

variable-sum game

to coercive

zero-sum game

Negotiation and Bargaining

Text A

Negotiation is diplomacy’s chief instrument or raison d’etre. Without the former the latter be meaningless. Negotiation – a formal form of interaction through which individuals explicitly try to reach some sort of agreement – is the first stage in a process seeking to find resolution to a problem. The second stage of the same process is called bargaining. Because bargaining and negotiation are major mechanisms of conflict resolution in our society, many social psychologists treat the two terms as synonymous.

The goals of negotiation are not always limited to seeking an agreement. To achieve an agreement of some kind between two parties, the negotiations are described as “serious”. However, the two parties may share the same view regarding the prospects of a negotiated agreement. When one party is more anxious to commence negotiations, the other party may attempt to gain concessions as a payment for entering into negotiations. Therefore, a precondition for successful negotiation is that parties negotiate “in good faith”; that is explicitly spell out terms for agreement. There are four kinds of agreements in which states act to regulate their relation:

1. Extension agreements (e.g., tariff agreements), which provide a formal ratification and continuation of existing arrangements.

2. Normalization agreements (e.g., the reestablishment of diplomatic relations after a breach of relations), which terminate an abnormal situation in relations between two parties.

3. Redistribution agreements (e.g., preferential trade agreement), which benefit one party at the expense of another.

4. Innovation agreements (e.g., the European Economic Community, or EEC, in 1958).

Each of these different types of agreements requires a different negotiating process that entails a number of tasks and purposes. Before the parties commit themselves to enter into negotiations, the actors must agree on time, place, agendum, conference arrangements, and the diplomatic level at which the discussions will be held. Disagreements on some of these procedural matters can be interpreted as a sign of how far apart the two parties are on the substantive issues.

In the opening stages of a negotiation, or during the exploratory discussions, the opposing parties attempt to define issues and the common interests that have brought them to the negotiating table. At this juncture the two sides attempt to verify or correct their earlier assumptions and beliefs regarding the prospects of an agreement. Each negotiator seeks a clear, specific statement of the other side’s demands. It is generally understood at this stage of the negotiating process that each side will state its maximum terms for an agreement (more than actually expected), so that there will be room for adjustment and modification – compromise – during the course of persuasion and bargaining.

After the parameters for maximum demands have been set, each negotiator seeks to find out from the other side the minimum objectives that it is willing to accept – also known as the resistance point. To ascertain an opponent’s resistance point is perhaps the most difficult aspect of the negotiation process. The reasons are obvious; to reveal the negotiator’s minimal demands prematurely could jeopardize a successful negotiation. That is why negotiation requires skill, patience, and careful calculator.

There is a distinction between formal and informal or tacit negotiation. When states are unwilling to be explicit in their interests, or pursue formal negotiation and prefer instead to use hints and guesswork, then they are using tacit (informal) negotiation techniques. States use tacit negotiation for posturing purposes to spread propaganda, gather intelligence, and to influence third parties. Tacit negotiation is often employed to influence another government’s future behavior. Formal negotiations take place when both parties in the negotiation process agree on at least some initial terms.

Bargaining can be viewed as a means of resolving differences over proposed terms of agreements between negotiating parties through some sort of compromise. For bargaining to take place, there must be conflict over proposed terms of agreement; if there were total agreement, there would be nothing to bargain about. The aim is for one side to influence its opponent into agreeing to its terms and to minimize costs and concessions if they have to be made.

The Bargaining process

Text B

This process involves games and debates, as well as persuasion, promises, commitments, threats, and rewards. The bargaining game calls for each side to reach a final agreement as far from the client’s minimum and as close to its maximum demands as possible. In other words, in a bargaining situation the aim is to push towards your opponent’s minimum and your maximum set of proposed terms. The effectiveness of any bargaining strategy depends in a large measure on the bargaining position of the bargainers. If you are negotiating from a position of weakness, if you are not wanted or needed in an agreement, or if your moves are poorly timed, bargaining effectiveness is likely to be reduced.

Commitments (or promises) and threats are the two basic moves in bargaining. If you make a commitment, you are trying to change the opponent’s expectations about your future conduct by changing your incentives. In other words, a commitment is a move to convince an opponent that you will maintain your current position, or implement your prediction, by making it less difficult for the opponent and more difficult for yourself. A threat is a prediction addressed to your opponent that he or she will suffer certain consequences if he or she does not comply with your wishes.

It is more difficult to compel than to deter certain behavior on the part of another state. Compellance means to persuade the other side to do something it does not want to do, either to continue a desired behavior or to stop some undesired behavior. Deterrence, on the other hand, means to discourage the other side from doing something it might want to do. Whereas a successful compellance requires the influenced party to make something happen, successful deterrence consists of nothing happening. To be successful, commitments or threats must be credible and potent. Unless the opponent believes that the bargainer making the commitments or threats has the capability and willingness to carry them out, they are meaningless. How does a person become a successful bargainer? Persuasion, commitment, empathy, and reliance on the legitimacy of claims seem to work much better then threats or use of force. The bargainer should always be concerned with precedent and reciprocity to appear consistent with principles when appealing to values held by the opponent.

Instruments of International Bargaining

Text C

The two most influential instruments of international bargaining are the use of military capabilities and economic resources. While the former is generally a coercive or punishment-oriented means of influence, the letter is an indirect means of influence whose objective is to exploit the vulnerability of other states. In addition to coercive influence, military capabilities can also be used for rewards. For example, military assistance is an important component of aid programs to the developing nations. Another way to reward states with military capabilities is to ask them to join in a military alliance. Weaker states, for example, with less sophisticated military capabilities may accept the deterrent umbrella of a stronger state by singing a formal treaty of alliance as a security measure against a potential common enemy. Military capabilities are usually employed in bargaining to achieve a deterrent effect. The concept of deterrence refers to a preventive action against possible military aggression by making the potential costs of such an aggression exceed in the eyes of the would-be aggressor. If deterrence fails, the game changes from the use of diplomacy to the use of force. An aggressor will usually rely on force because he or she expects to get benefits from the new distribution of security, political control, territory, status, and wealth after force has been used. States are influenced by the threat of force because they fear what they will lose if others use force. The military technique of influence, therefore, is a means to achieve political ends, unless an aggressor’s objective is to destroy an opponent, in which case influence plays no role. However, when a state threatens to hurt an opponent, then the aim is to break the opponent’s will to resist, that is, to influence the opponent’s behavior into submission. Thus, military deterrence has become a very useful instrument of bargaining, practiced by all nations perceiving threats from potential enemies. It is interesting to note that the use of threat or actual conventional military force retains a greater deterrent value that the threat of use or actual use of nuclear weapons. States having sufficient nuclear capabilities cannot credibly threaten to use them without inviting destruction by a retaliatory attack, or expect devastation so great that there is no territory, population, or wealth to be gained after their use. To put it another way, nuclear weapons have little utility if they must actually be used. Nuclear deterrence has a separate logic and language from that of the conventional use of military capabilities.

The second most important instrument of international bargaining is economic means of influence. No state is self-sufficient today; each one has economic needs. Most states require petroleum, rybber, tin, cocoa, tea, copper, and other precious metals that are only produced in a few countries. A similar situation applies to food, technology, and the products of technology. States that lack resources and commodities depend on others, and therefore are vulnerable to economic influence. Nevertheless, the desire of every state is to be economically as independent as possible. Just as military influence in the bargaining process, economic influence can be used either to reward or punish. States employ various techniques or tactics to control the flow of goods, services, and resources. For example, if state wants to cut down on imports or make them more expensive, it can impose tariffs, or taxes levied on imported goods usually for protection of the country’s domestic industries. High tariffs will discourage trade from abroad; low tariffs will encourage it. A similar technique to punish a trading partner is to impose quotas on goods. It is important to distinguish between self- imposed that officially imposed quotas.

Other methods for controlling trade include boycotts, which refer to the refusal of a country to purchase goods to import products from another state (for example, when the U.S. refuse to import Stolichnaya vodka from the Soviet Union after the invasion of Afghanistan in 1980). An embargo, which is opposite of a boycott, may also be used. Embargoes occur when a state refuses to export needed goods to another state (for example, grain from the United States to the Soviet Union in 1980 or the Arab petroleum embargo of Western nations in 1974, following the Yom Kippur war.

An example of economic influence used as a reward is the most-favored- nation principle (MFN), which is based on nondiscrimination in trade and extends tariff concessions agreed to by the signatories to all nations participating in the reciprocal system. The insertion of an MFN clause in a trade agreement means that the parties are not attempting to establish a bilateral preferential arrangement that would discriminate against other trading partners. The most popular technique of economic reward is foreign aid, in which transfer of economic goods or services are transferred from the donor to the recipient. The goods and services include commodity, money, or technical assistance. Foreign aid can be administered as bilateral aid (i.e., one state to another) or multilateral aid (i.e., aid given through international organizations such as the UN, the Word Bank).

Bilateral aid makes it easier for the donor to exert influence on the recipient. Hence, Third World recipients have preferred multilateral aid. Bilateral aid can be used fort military assistance; economic development, or relief (in the event of a disaster such as earthquake).

WORD STUDY

Exercise 1. Give Russian equivalents of the following expressions:

diplomacy’s chief instrument; to reach an agreement; to find resolution to a problem; to seek an agreement; to share the same view; to gain concessions; to terminate an abnormal situation; preferential trade agreements; at the expense of somebody; substantive issues; to be far apart; persuasion; to be explicit in interests; to negotiate from the position of weakness; to make a commitment; to comply with somebody’s wishes; successful compellance; a coercive or punishment oriented means of influence; to exploit vulnerability of other states; to reward states with military capabilities; retaliatory attack; expect devastation; to lack something; domestic industries; to impose; to establish bilateral preferential arrangement; recipient; to exert influence on something.

Exercise 2. Consult the glossary and explain the following statements, give Russian equivalents of them:

a) most-favored nation principle;

b) normalization agreement;

c) redistribution agreement;

d) innovation agreement;

e) extension agreement;

f) tacit negotiation;

g) commitments;

h) deterrence;

i) embargo;

j) boycott;

k) quota

Exercise 3. Fill in the box with all derivatives. Consult the dictionary.

Verb

Noun

Adjective

Adverb

agreement

determinably

to compel

retaliation

to persuade

influential

Exercise 4. Find in the Text A all word-combinations with the following words. Translate them into Russian:

a) negotiation;

b) agreement;

c) process.

Exercise 5. Match the following word combinations according to their meaning:

to assume power

to take upon oneself

to assume the role of a leader

to gain power

to assume a part

to put on a look

to assume a look

to pretend (to feign)

to assume responsibility

to take leadership

Exercise 6. Match the verbs in the left-hand column with the nouns in the right-hand column:

to achieve

a deterrent effect

negotiations

relations

terms

to influence

an agreement

concession

conflict

compromise

to commence

process

military capabilities

use of force

tariffs

to regulate

recipient

military assistance

Exercise 7. Find in the Text C all word-combinations with the following words and translate them into Russian:

a) military;

b) bargaining;

c) threat.

Exercise 8. Give English equivalents of the following expressions:

достигать соглашения; решение проблемы, конфликта; разделять мнение; добиться уступок; проводить обсуждение на дипломатическом уровне; начинать переговоры; влиять на процесс переговоров; средство устрашения; рисковать успешностью переговоров; использовать намеки и предположения; убеждение; способы воздействия на результаты переговоров; военная угроза; тарифное давление; бойкот; эмбарго.

Exercise 9. Translate the following text into English.

Переговоры являются одной из важнейших форм дипломатической работы. В современную эпоху международные переговоры являются основным средством решения многих международных проблем. Участники современного переговорного процесса стремятся к выработке как можно большего числа договоренностей. Дипломатов обучают искусству ведения переговоров, решению конфликтных ситуаций, выполнению посреднических, миротворческих функций. Много внимания уделяется изучению национальных стилей ведения переговоров. Для некоторых переговоров характерно проведение общеполитической дискуссии. В частности, так открывается каждое заседание сессии Генеральной Ассамблеи ООН. В ходе дискуссии члены делегаций имеют возможность высказать свою точку зрения по широкому спектру вопросов, не относящихся к повестке дня, с тем, чтобы привлечь к ним внимание широкой общественности. Иногда в ходе обсуждения позиций выясняется, что для разных сторон ключевыми, принципиальными являются не одни и те же вопросы. Например, часть участников основной акцент делала на культурное сотрудничество, соблюдение прав человека, другая – на урегулирование вопросов международной безопасности.

MISCELLANEOUS

successful    successive

Explanatory Notes

Successful adj. Coming about, taking place, having a favourable result; achieving or having achieved success, e.g. a successful mission; to be successful in doing something; a successful man.

Successive adj. Coming one after the other following in order, e.g. successive ballots; the team won four successive games.

The meanings of successful (успешный, удачный, преуспевающий) and successive (последующий, следующий один за другим) are utterly different. Remember that successful is correlated with succession (преемственность, последовательность, непрерывный ряд).

Exercise 1. Translate the following phrases into Russian; use them in sentences or situations:

to prove successful

a successful campaign

to make oneself successful

with every successive day

an unsuccessful effort

insufficiently successful

successful compellance

successful bargainer

Exercise 2. Paraphrase the following phrases and sentences using one of the words under discussion.

1. To succeed in one’s purpose.

2. Several negotiations coming one after the other.

3. The summit had succeeded.

4. They have been trying unsuccessfully to find right decision.

Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into Russian.

1. How does a person become successful bargainer?

2. In two successive campaigns he had been defeated.

3. For several successive days early in the week it was an item of news.

4. I have been what is called a successful man.

5. Once he had been able to do so, but of late it was becoming harder and harder with every successive day.

Exercise 4. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Их усилия увенчались успехом.

2. Каждое последующее поколение имеет некоторые языковые отличия от своих предшественников.

3. Ему везет во всем.

4. Попытки провести переговоры по этой проблеме оказались безуспешными.

5. Правильный выбор специальности – залог успешной работы.

6. Он был преуспевающим бизнесменом.

SPEECH EXERCISES

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions after reading the Text A.

1. What is the chief diplomacy’s instrument?

2. What are two stages of negotiation?

3. What is the goal of negotiation?

4. What are kinds of agreements in which states act to regulate their relation?

5. What is the characteristic feature of the opening stage of a negotiation?

6. What does a negotiation require?

7. What is tacit negotiation?

8. When does bargaining take place?

Exercise 2. Answer the following questions after reading the Text B.

1. What does the bargaining process involve?

2. What are the two basic moves in bargaining?

3. How does a person become a successful bargainer?

Exercise 3. Read the following statements. Agree or disagree with them. Give your reasons.

1. The effectiveness of any bargaining strategy depends in a large measure on the bargaining position of the bargainers.

2. It is more difficult to compel than to deter certain behavior on the part of another state.

3. To be successful, commitments or threats must be credible and potent.

Exercise 4. Answer the following questions after reading the Text C.

1. What are the two most influential instruments of international bargaining?

2. What is the way to reward states with military capabilities?

3. What is military deterrence? How does it work?

4. What is the aim of economic means of influence?

5. What are the methods of economic influence?

6. What is boycott?

7. What is embargo?

8. What is the most popular technique of economic reward?

9. What aid do Third Word recipients prefer and why?

Exercise 5. Fill in the table. Comment on it.

Instrument of International Bargaining

Means

Function

Example

1. Use of military capabilities.

2. Economic Influence.

Exercise 6. What are the ways and means to reward or to punish states, using the most influential instruments of international bargaining. Fill in the table. Comment on it.

Military Influence

Economic Influence

1. To reward

1.

2.

3.

1.

2.

3.

2. To punish

1.

2.

3.

1.

2.

3.

REVISION SECTION

Exercise 1. Look at the following words or word expressions and match them with the correct definition from the list below.

Compellance; embassy; summit diplomacy; bilateral aid; mediation; negotiation; tacit negotiation; bargaining; deterrence; conciliation; inquiry

1. An interaction that occurs when negotiators attempt to agree on a mutually acceptable outcome in a situation in which their orders or preference for possible outcomes are negatively correlated.

2. Any form of aid or assistance given by a donor to a recipient country.

3. In the bargaining process, the attempt by one state to persuade another state to do something the latter generally does not wish to do.

4. The attempt by one state to dissuade another state from some act, especially an act of military aggression.

5. A permanent mission established by a national government in a foreign country to represent its interests in that country.

6. A formal interaction through which individuals try to reach an agreement.

7. Direct, personal contact and negotiation between heads of state.

8. Informal, indirect communication through words and actions that is designed to signal one’s intentions or the importance attached to some issue in the negotiation process.

9. An official investigation by a third party, usually an international agency, to clarify the circumstances surrounding a dispute, especially when there is a difference over facts.

10. The insertion of a third party (state, individuals or international agency at the contending parties) to actively assist in obtaining settlement of a dispute.

11. Attempts by third parties to a dispute to soften the positions of the disputants, to encourage dialogue and peaceful settlements.

Exercise 2. Complete the text with the words from the box. Translate the text into Russian.

Devices; bilateral; dispute; conciliation; diplomatic; inquiry; issue; accredited; acceptable; negotiations; ambassador; multilateral

Political Techniques

Techniques for settlement of _____ that rest upon negotiation comprise the political method. Such techniques can be classified into three groups:

(1) _____ techniques, (2) good offices and mediation, and (3) inquiry and _____.Techniques are the most often used devices for the settlement of disputes. Such techniques include direct consultation through existing _____ representatives; and organized _____ conferences. The most frequent choice is also the oldest _____ techniques: direct consultation on a _____ basis. Through their _____ accredited to each other, two states discuss and perhaps settle a _____ between them. The third group of political techniques _____ and conciliation, can also be used where diplomatic _____ have become deadlocked. Which _____ are used and how many of them and in what order depends upon the needs of the case. Success stems from a common willings to settle an _____ and an _____ basis for compromise.

Exercise 3. Read the text and render it in English.

В зависимости от уровня представительства можно выделить политические и дипломатические переговоры.

Политические переговоры ведутся на высшем уровне – между главами государств, министерствами иностранных дел. Отличительная черта таких переговоров состоит в том, что их участники вправе самостоятельно принимать решения, нерасходящиеся с национальными интересами страны.

В зависимости от числа участников переговоры бывают двусторонние и многосторонние.

Появился новый термин «многосторонняя дипломатия», под которой понимается «... совместное рассмотрение несколькими государствами международной проблемы с целью найти взаимоприемлемое решение». Эта деятельность осуществляется либо на специально созываемых постоянно действующих конференциях, либо в рамках международных организаций. Структура переговоров включает две стадии: подготовительную и переговорную.

Основная функция переговоров – разрешение конфликтов, спорных вопросов путем их обсуждения и принятия совместного решения.

Exercise 4. Divide into supporters and opponents of the two most influential instruments of international bargaining (the use of military capabilities and economic resources). Which one is the most effective? Speak for or against of each instrument of bargaining. Give your reasons.

Exercise 5. Choose the most important reasons for studying International Relations. Rank them below starting with the most important one:

Exercise 6. Observe the latest diplomatic events. Give examples. Comment on their forms, functions, purposes and results.

RESEARCH AND PROJECTS

Topics for oral and written reports.

1. The art of conducting negotiations.

2. Privileges and immunities of diplomats.

3. My future profession is Specialist in the field of International Relations.

4. Summit diplomacy, its actors, functions, examples.

5. Technical diplomacy, its actors, functions, examples.

6. Ministerial diplomacy.

7. Conference diplomacy, its actors, functions, examples.

8. Instruments of diplomacy.

9. Instruments of International bargaining.

Unit 3.
THE DIPLOMATIC CORPS

SECTION 1

WORDS AND TERMS TO BE REMEMBERED

ambassador

precedence

to attain

nation-state

“centralizers”

sending state

consulate

to maintain

consular office

maintenance

“decentralizers”

to monitor

embassy

personal

integrity

personnel

host country

permanent mission

rank

routine activities

to be accredited

unanimity

to be in charge

unanimous

The Role of the Embassy and the Ambassador

Text A

No country Embassies (i.e., permanent missions on foreign soil) in every nation-state. The superpowers maintain the largest number of overseas missions followed by several other major powers. Most nations maintain legations with the largest states, with immediate neighbors, or with the United Nations. However, most countries are too poor to maintain extensive diplomatic establishments. For instance, no African country maintains embassies in all other countries. Rather, they contact fellow African governments on an ad hoc basis or through their representatives in the Organization of African Unity and the UN.

Embassies are headed by ambassador, who is responsible for all personnel. Embassies are staffed with foreign service officers, military personnel, and civil servants from departments such as agriculture and commerce or consular offices. The bulk of work at an embassy is carried out by locally hired employees whose functions include registering the births, deaths, and marriages of citizens of the sending state residing in the host country; issuing, validating, and replacing passports; generally providing protection to the person, property, and other interests of citizens of the sending state. Other routine activities involve attending social and ceremonial affairs, such as luncheons, benefits, cocktail parties, ground-breaking ceremony, and the like.

The role of diplomats can be broken down into several major categories. First, diplomats play an important symbolic role. They represent the interests of the sending state. They are expected to attend formal state functions, such as inaugurations, funerals of important leaders, and so on. Second, and closely related to the symbolic role, is the legal representation function. Diplomats represent the legal interests of their fellow citizens who are travelling or living in the country. Third, diplomats, especially consular officers, perform important economic functions. They attempt to identify opportunities for business ventures, trade, and investment for their nationals in the host country. Fourth, diplomats perform important political and information-gathering functions. They monitor political developments, analyze media reports, stay in touch with important governmental and opposition figures, and collect data on public opinion. Finally, to attain these goals, diplomats and embassies must have a smooth administrative apparatus. Embassies are miniature bureaucracies, and as such, diplomats must have not only legal, political, and economic skills, but also a capacity for administration.

The Ambassador

Text B

As the highest ranking official of the embassy, the ambassador is the personal representative of the government of the sending state. He or she is viewed by the host state as the official spokesperson from the sending state. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries ambassadors were professional people of intelligence, wealth, high moral, integrity, and skill in languages and diplomatic protocol, which placed them in an international fraternity of diplomats whose prestige was recognized throughout the world.

The rapid scientific and technological changes in the later part of twentieth century are also reflected in the transformation of the role of the embassy and the diplomatic service. Today the role of an ambassador has changed appreciably. The advancement in communication and travel technology has made governments less dependent on their ambassadors on the scene as their chief representatives in dealing with a foreign government. Instant communication between the home office and the embassy and the use of supersonic jets and hot lines have changed the function of an ambassador from a negotiator to a reporter. As soon as information and the ambassador’s interpretation of it are received, decisions are made in national capitals.

Much depends on the ambassador’s ability and adaptability to the new conditions prevailing in the world today. Some ambassadors, for example, are known as “centralizers” because they act as the clearinghouse for the information processing and try to orchestrate differences of opinion in the reports they receive, discourage staff initiatives and disagreements, and seek an animity and conformity in actions. On the opposite side are the “decentralizers”, that is, ambassadors who like to delegate responsibilities and who encourage diversity in reports they receive. Another visible issue in the operation of an embassy is whether the ambassador is a career diplomat rising through the ranks of the Foreign Service or a political appointee.

Text C

Since the Congress of Vienna (1815) evolved rules for the classification of ranks, diplomats have been divided into categories. The original four categories were reduced to three by the Vienna convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961. They are, in order of rank:

Ambassadors or papal nunciuos, who are accredited to heads of states, and other heads of mission of equivalent rank.

Envoys, ministers and internuncious, similarly accredited to heads of states.

Charge d’affaires (the official temporarily in charge in the absence of the ambassador or minister).