Андрей Тихомиров
The concept of hypnosis: a scientific approach

Introduction

People have been entering a hypnotic type of trance for thousands of years. In many cultures and religions, this has been seen as a form of meditation. The magicians of Persia and the yogis of India have practiced hypnosis for thousands of years for religious purposes, plunging themselves into an ecstatic trance with every movement of their finger. by keeping your gaze fixed on the tip of your own nose; obviously, there is no need for exoteric exposure to cause the phenomenon of Mesmerism. The main purpose of all these processes is to develop a habit of abstraction or concentration of attention, in which the subject is completely absorbed in one idea or chain of ideas, while he is unaware or indifferent to any other object, goal or action. The earliest record of a description of a hypnotic state can be found in the writings of Avicenna, a Persian physician who wrote about "trance" in 1027. Modern hypnosis originated in the late 18th century and became popular thanks to Franz Mesmer, a German physician who became known as the father of "modern hypnosis". At that time, hypnosis was known as "Mesmerism", named after Mesmer. He was of the opinion that hypnosis is a kind of mystical force that flows from the hypnotist to the hypnotized person, but his theory was rejected by critics who argued that there is no magical element in hypnosis.

There are various theories explaining hypnosis and related phenomena. Altered state theories view hypnosis as an altered state of consciousness or trance characterized by a level of awareness different from the normal state of consciousness. On the contrary, non-governmental theories view hypnosis in different ways as a placebo effect, a redefinition of interaction with a therapist, or a form of imaginative role-playing.

Hypnosis-based treatments for irritable bowel syndrome and menopause are supported by evidence. The use of hypnosis to treat other problems has produced mixed results, for example, when quitting smoking. The use of hypnosis as a form of therapy for the recovery and integration of early trauma is controversial in the scientific mainstream. Research shows that human hypnosis can contribute to the formation of false memories, and that hypnosis does not help people recall events more accurately.

Hypnosis is a peculiar, sleep—like state of man and higher vertebrates, which is based on the phenomena of inhibition of the higher parts of the brain. Up to the 60s of the 19th century, ideas about hypnosis were based on spiritualistic assumptions of special "fluids" or magnetic waves – special currents allegedly propagated by the hypnotist. Mystical ideas about hypnosis were destroyed by the works of Russian (V. M. Bekhterev, O. O. Mochutkovsky, A. A. Tokarsky, etc.) and French (N. Bernheim and J. Charcot) scientists. The names of these scientists are associated with the beginning of the scientific development of the problems of hypnotic states. They established the therapeutic value of hypnosis, and also clarified the special role of suggestion as a method of using the psychological factor for therapeutic purposes. However, there was still a lot of mystery about the phenomena of hypnosis. In particular, hypnosis and suggestion were mistakenly confused. Proponents of the psychological direction still continue to adhere to Bernheim's outdated and incorrect position that "there is no hypnosis, there is only suggestion, suggestion is autosuggestion." Meanwhile, the phenomena of hypnosis and suggestion are different: if the state of hypnosis is characteristic of both humans and animals, then susceptibility to verbal suggestion is a property of only the highest human nervous activity. The physiological side of suggestion found its explanation in the teachings of I. P. Pavlov on the signaling function of the large hemispheres, on the interaction of the first and second signaling systems in the higher nervous activity of man.

I. P. Pavlov and his students, carefully studying hypnosis in animal experiments and observations of people in the clinic, gave a scientific justification for the phenomena of hypnosis, which dealt a decisive blow to the generally accepted subjective psychological understanding of hypnotic states at that time. The theoretical basis for this has already been prepared by I. M. Sechenov's teaching on the central inhibition of the underlying parts of the nervous system by the brain. At the heart of the hypnotic state, according to the teachings of I. P. Pavlova, there is a process of inhibition that develops in the form of partial cortical sleep, due to the fractional and uneven spread of inhibition over the surface of the cerebral cortex. This spatial limitation of the irradiation and intensity of the inhibition process is the main difference between hypnotic sleep and natural, normal sleep, in which inhibition covers the entire cerebral cortex (descending to the underlying subcortical formations). With this partial inhibition, separate foci of arousal are usually preserved – "watchtowers", as Pavlov called them, which provide the possibility of communication between the hypnotized and the hypnotizing. Thus, a person in a state of hypnosis, as if isolated from all external stimuli, perceives verbal suggestion. The enormous meaning of the word, as the most typical conditioned stimulus for a person, was highlighted by I.P. Pavlov. He pointed out that the word of a hypnotist, on the one hand, causes a diffuse inhibition in the brain, on the other hand, concentrates irritation in a certain area of the cerebral cortex. This eliminates the competing effects of all other external stimuli.

The development of hypnosis is a dynamic process consisting of several phases characterized by varying intensity and depth of inhibition. The main ones are: the equalizing phase, when, regardless of the strength of the stimulus, reflex responses are equalized in intensity; the paradoxical phase – weak stimuli cause a strong effect, and strong ones cause a weak effect; the ultra—paradoxical phase, in which there is a perversion of reflex responses – a positive effect is caused by a negative inhibitory stimulus, while the inhibitory effect is caused by a positive an irritant. The state of hypnosis can occur under the influence of a wide variety of factors affecting the nervous system. Hypnosis is caused both by the sudden action of an excessive external stimulus, and by the action of very weak and monotonous auditory, visual and tactile stimuli. Most often, the inhibitory state develops precisely under the influence of such weak and monotonous stimuli. The phenomena of hypnosis in humans can also be caused by verbal suggestion of ideas reminiscent of a drowsy state. According to external manifestations in hypnosis, three stages can be distinguished: the first is drowsiness (a person feels the need for rest, an extraordinary heaviness of the body, it is difficult for him to open his eyes); the second is hypotaxia (light sleep), in which pronounced catalepsy is noted (a state of waxy flexibility, when members of the body can be given any position), a person does not lose the ability to recall experiences, and the suggestion produced in this state reveals its effect in the posthypnotic state; the third stage is somnambulism, or deep hypnosis, when the hypnotized person is completely isolated from any "competing" impressions and retains contact only with the hypnotist; at the same time, after waking up, the person usually does not remember anything that happened to him during hypnotic sleep. In the initial stages of hypnosis, when only a dream-like state is found in humans and animals, it is possible to form and strengthen new conditional connections; in deeper stages of hypnosis, the processes of establishing, and even more so consolidating new conditional connections, are significantly difficult. All these phenomena, detected by higher nervous activity in hypnotic phases, are associated with a decrease in the excitability of the nerve cells of the cerebral cortex, I. P. Pavlov argued that we have a reduced positive tone in hypnosis and on the cerebral cortex due to irradiated tension. In a state of deep hypnosis, in the stage of so-called somnambulism, the best conditions are created for the realization of suggestion. At this stage, it is possible to achieve complete immobility of a person, you can give members any unusual position, a variety of bizarre poses that the hypnotized person will maintain for a long time without fatigue (a state of catalepsy and catatonia). In the state of the somnambulistic phase, very profound changes in human behavior can sometimes be caused, which manifests itself in the possibility of inducing hallucinations and other changes in perception, as well as actions and deeds corresponding to an earlier age, even childhood. It has also been established that a hypnotized person can be inspired with various experiences that cause a change in the functional state of some organ systems, for example, enhancing or weakening cardiac activity, changing the motor and secretory functions of the gastrointestinal tract, increasing or decreasing the content of sugar, lipoids and chlorides in the blood, etc. The phenomena of somnambulism are due to the uneven spread of inhibition along the cortex of large the hemispheres of the brain. At the same time, the functional distinction between the areas of irritable and inhibitory processes develops in such a way that some brain formations are completely covered by inhibition, others are only partially inhibited, and some are completely free from it and are in a waking state. All the often striking phenomena of human hypnosis are the result of one or another division of the large hemispheres into sleepy and awake sections. Hypnosis in a particularly pronounced form can directly turn into sleep. The weakening of the sleepy state and the transition from sleep to wakefulness also proceeds in waves with corresponding hypnotic intermediate phases. The phenomena of hypnotic suggestibility are especially clearly observed in persons suffering from hysteria, whom I. P. Pavlov considered to be constantly in various phases of the hypnotic state. However, it is wrong, based on the observed increased suggestibility of hysterical patients, to identify hypnosis with hysteria, as did J. Charcot and his followers, who believed that hypnosis is artificially induced hysteria. For therapeutic purposes, the method of suggestion in reality, developed by V. M. Bekhterev, Yu. V. Kannabikh and others, is also successfully used. The study of the functional state of the cerebral cortex during hypnosis led I. P. Pavlov to recognize the biological role of hypnotic inhibition and made it possible to assert that hypnosis is one of the self-protective reflexes, which is essentially a protective physiological measure for the nervous system.

"Stigmata, stigmata (from the Greek – stigma, stigmatos – prick, scar, spot, sign) – redness of the skin, bruises or ulcers that involuntarily appear on the body of some deeply religious people in those places where, according to the biblical myth, the crucified Christ had wounds from a new crown and nails. The appearance of stigmata was considered by the church as a miracle and was used to incite religious fanaticism. Modern science has established that stigmatization is based on an increased tendency to self-suggestion and morbid sensitivity inherent in patients with hysteria. Cases of skin changes under the influence of suggestion and autosuggestion (imaginary burn, imaginary bruise, etc.) are known in medicine and are explained by the fact that each part of the body is connected by nerve conductors through the spinal cord and subcortex to the cerebral cortex. Under certain conditions, changes in the normal state of the nervous system can cause metabolic disorders in tissues, expressed in redness or swelling of the skin, etc. anomalies. This mechanism also underlies stigmata" (Tikhomirov A.E. The origin of words and signs. The Science of superstition, "Ridero", Yekaterinburg, 2017, pp. 138-139).

Hypnosis in some cases, as well as sleep, helps to restore and improve nervous activity. As a result of a short-term hypnotic state, the activity of the cerebral cortex improves, associative processes are facilitated, attention and memory functions increase. Hypnotic inhibition promotes the restoration of vital processes in tissues and body systems, improves the performance of tired muscles. A detailed analysis of the phenomena of hypnosis made it possible for the first time to scientifically substantiate the previously mysterious phenomena of hypnotic states. The disclosure of the phases of hypnosis contributed to the understanding and rational treatment of sleep disorders, often observed in various diseases. Pavlov's teaching on sleep and hypnosis also provides a scientific basis for a proper understanding of deeper disorders of higher nervous activity in nervous and mental diseases and helps to find effective methods of their treatment.

Hypnosis can be used with favorable results in the treatment of predominantly functional nervous diseases without organic lesions of the central nervous system. These include obsessive states, hysteria, etc. Hypnosis is successfully used in the treatment of alcoholism and drug addiction. Hypnosis is contraindicated in psychoses, especially those occurring with delirium, as well as in the presence of an attraction to hypnosis, which acquires a pathological character. Hypnotic suggestion is widely used in obstetric practice in order to anesthetize childbirth, as well as in surgery and dentistry. Favorable cases of the cure of certain skin diseases with the help of appropriate hypnotic suggestion are described.

The technique of hypnosis for therapeutic purposes is very diverse. Many people use passes performed near the face of the hypnotized person, or light stroking of the face and body. Another technique is to fix a shiny object with your eyes for a long time. The main method should be considered the verbal suggestion of ideas about developing drowsiness. With this method, the patient is convinced in a calm, even, monotonous voice that he will fall asleep, that he is sleepy, that he is falling asleep.

From the history of hypnosis

The words hypnosis and hypnotism both come from the term neurohypnosis (nervous sleep), they were all coined by Etienne Felix d'Henin de Cuvilliers in the 1820s. The term hypnosis comes from the Greek ὑπνος hypnos, "sleep", and the suffix -ωσις -osis, or from ὑπνόω hypnooō, "put to sleep" (the basis of aorist hypnōs-) and the suffix -is. These words were popularized in English by the Scottish surgeon James Brade (to whom they are sometimes mistakenly attributed) around 1841. Braid based his practice on a method developed by Franz Mesmer and his followers (which was called "mesmerism" or "animal magnetism"), but differed in his theory as to how the procedure worked. In ancient Russia, hypnosis was called "enchantment", and hypnotized people were called "charmed" or "enchanted".

Abbot Faria, a Catholic monk, was one of the pioneers of the scientific study of hypnosis, continuing the work of Franz Mesmer. Unlike Mesmer, who claimed that hypnosis was mediated by "animal magnetism," Faria believed that it worked solely through the power of suggestion. Soon hypnosis began to find its way into the world of modern medicine. The use of hypnosis in the medical field has become popular thanks to surgeons and therapists such as Elliotson and James Esdale, and researchers such as James Brade, who have helped uncover the biological and physical benefits of hypnosis. According to his writings, Brade began to hear reports of various Oriental meditation practices shortly after the publication of his first publication on hypnosis, Neuropnology (1843). He first discussed some of these Oriental practices in a series of articles entitled Magic, Mesmerism, Hypnotism, etc., from a historical and physiological point of view. He drew analogies between his own practice of hypnosis and various forms of Hindu yogic meditation, and other ancient spiritual practices, especially those involving voluntary burial and apparent hibernation of a person. Brade's interest in these practices stems from his study of Dabistan-i Mazahib, the "School of Religions", an ancient Persian text describing a wide range of Eastern religious rituals, beliefs and practices. Although he completely rejected the transcendental or metaphysical interpretation given to these phenomena, Braid acknowledged that these descriptions of Oriental practices confirm his opinion that the effects of hypnosis can be produced alone, without the presence of anyone else (as he had already proved to his own satisfaction by experiments that he conducted in November 1841); and he saw correlations between many "metaphysical" Oriental practices and his own "rational" neurohypnotism, and completely rejected all the fluid theories and magnetic practices of the Mesmerists.

Avicenna (980-1037), a Persian physician, documented the characteristics of the state of "trance" (hypnotic trance) in 1027. Hypnosis was rarely used as a medical device at that time; the German physician Franz Mesmer reintroduced it in the 18th century.

Franz Mesmer (1734-1815) believed that there is a magnetic force or "fluid" in the universe, called "animal magnetism", which affects the health of the human body. He experimented with magnets to influence this field to induce healing. By about 1774, he came to the conclusion that the same effect could be created by passing his hands in front of the subject's body, which would later be called "Mesmeric Passes".

In 1784, at the request of King Louis XVI, two royal commissions on animal magnetism were specifically commissioned (separately) to investigate the claims of a certain Charles d'Eslon (1750-1786), a disgruntled disciple of Mesmer, about the existence of an essential (and not metaphorical, as Mesmer assumed) "animal magnetism", "magnetic animal", and similarly a physical "magnetic fluid", "magnetic liquid". Among the researchers were scientist Antoine Lavoisier, electricity and terrestrial magnetism expert Benjamin Franklin and pain relief expert Joseph-Ignace Guillotin.

The members of the Commission investigated d'Eslon's practice; and, although they unconditionally admitted that Mesmer's "cures" were indeed "cures," they did not investigate whether (or not) Mesmer initiated these "cures". Notably, in their studies of the d'Eslon procedures, they conducted an extensive series of randomized controlled trials, the experimental protocols of which were developed by Lavoisier, including the use of both "fictitious" and "genuine" procedures and, importantly, the first use of "blindfolding" for both researchers and their subjects.

As a result of their investigations, both Commissions concluded that there was no evidence to support d'Eslon's claim of the substantial physical existence of either his alleged "animal magnetism" or his alleged "magnetic fluid"; and in the process they determined that all the effects they observed could be directly attributed to physiological (rather than metaphysical) action, namely, that all experimentally observed phenomena can be directly attributed to "contact", "imagination" and (or) "imitation". Eventually Mesmer left Paris and returned to Vienna to practice Mesmerism. Following the conclusions of the French committee, Dugald Stewart, an influential academic philosopher of the "Scottish School of Common Sense", called on doctors in his "Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind" (1818) to save the elements of Mesmerism by replacing the supernatural theory of "animal magnetism" with a new interpretation based on "common sense", the laws of physiology and psychology. During Braid's time, the Scottish School of Common Sense introduced the dominant theories of academic psychology, and Braid refers to other philosophers of this tradition in all his writings. Therefore, Braid revised the theory and practice of Mesmerism and developed his own method of hypnosis as a more rational alternative based on common sense.

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