Английский язык

Учебное пособие

Для второго года обучения по специальности «Судебная и прокурорская деятельность»

Ответственные редакторы
кандидат филологических наук,
доцент Н. Ю. Ильина,
кандидат педагогических наук,
доцент С. В. Гузеева

ebooks@prospekt.org

Информация о книге

УДК 811.111(075.8)

ББК 81.2Англ-923

А64

Авторы:

Ильина Н. Ю., Киселева Л. А., Мишурова О. И. – ch. 1; Гузеева С. В., Матияшина К. Я. – chs 2, 3; Дегтярева Е. А. – ch. 4; Кискина М. В. – ch. 5; Бородина Е. А. – ch. 6; Злобина О. Г., Мартыненко И. А. – ch. 7.

Рецензенты:

Фролова Г. М., кандидат педагогических наук, профессор, заведующая кафедрой лингводидактики Института иностранных языков имени М. Тореза Московского государственного лингвистического университета;

Ильина А. Ю., кандидат филологических наук, доцент, доцент кафедры иностранных языков филологического факультета Российского университета дружбы народов имени Патриса Лумумбы;

Прокофьева О. Г., кандидат филологических наук, доцент кафедры юридического перевода Института юридического перевода Московского государственного юридического университета имени О. Е. Кутафина (МГЮА).

Ответственные редакторы кандидат филологических наук, доцент Н. Ю. Ильина, кандидат педагогических наук, доцент С. В. Гузеева.

Учебное пособие состоит из семи глав, содержание которых охватывает важные аспекты профессиональной деятельности органов прокуратуры.

Цель данного пособия – развитие основных видов речевой деятельности в сфере профессиональной иноязычной коммуникации.

Издание адресовано студентам и слушателям юридических вузов, обучающимся по специальности «Судебная и прокурорская деятельность», а также может быть полезно лицам, изучающим юридический английский язык.

УДК 811.111(075.8)

ББК 81.2Англ-923

© Коллектив авторов, 2024

© ООО «Проспект», 2024

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

Настоящее учебное пособие предназначено для студентов второго года обучения по специальности «Судебная и прокурорская деятельность». Пособие подготовлено профессорско-преподавательским коллективом кафедры английского языка Московского государственного юридического университета имени О. Е. Кутафина (МГЮА) в соответствии с рабочей программой по дисциплине «Иностранный язык» согласно ФГОС ВО.

Пособие раскрывает такие темы, как международные стандарты прокурорской деятельности; органы прокуратуры Российской Федерации, Соединенного Королевства Великобритании и Северной Ирландии и США, их структура и функции; международные преступления и межгосударственное сотрудничество в борьбе с ними; современные внутренние и внешние угрозы национальной безопасности и меры противодействия им, и др., что дает студентам более широкое видение своей будущей профессии.

Основными задачами учебного пособия, по мнению авторов, являются формирование у обучающихся умений и навыков восприятия, овладение студентами технологией переработки иноязычной профессионально значимой информации, а также развитие способности свободно продуцировать профессионально значимые высказывания в ситуациях профессионально-делового общения с соблюдением лингвистических и социальных норм носителей языка.

Пособие состоит из семи глав, разделенных на 4–6 уроков. Структура урока включает введение, один или несколько аутентичных текстов и комплекс разнообразных заданий к ним, направленных как на решение языковых и переводческих задач, так и на формирование исследовательских и коммуникативных навыков. В каждой главе содержатся творческие задания, которые мотивируют обучающихся к поиску необходимой для освоения профессии информации в различных источниках и активному участию в дискуссии. Особое внимание уделяется объяснению лингвистических и грамматических трудностей и специфики юридического английского языка. Каждая глава сопровождается глоссарием, позволяющим студентам закрепить основные лексические единицы по теме, а схемы и рисунки визуально дополняют теоретический материал.

Авторы выражают искреннюю благодарность старшему преподавателю кафедры английского языка Матияшиной Ксении Ярославовне за неоценимый вклад в разработку, редактирование пособия и техническое обеспечение работы, а также старшему преподавателю Ткачевой Елене Петровне за тщательное прочтение рукописи и ценные замечания.

Chapter 1. INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS

Unit 1. International Law

Lead-in

1. Discuss the questions in pairs. Use the following word combinations.

If I’m not mistaken… — если я не ошибаюсь…

If I remember rightly… — если я правильно помню…

It’s needless to say…– нет нужды говорить…

It’s common knowledge that... — общеизвестно, что…

It’s well known that… — хорошо известно, что…

I’m sure… — я уверен…

Probably — возможно, вероятно.

Something tells me – что-то мне подсказывает…

It is just my point of view — это только моя точка зрения.

I found out that… — я выяснил, что…

1. Can international law be called a phenomenon of the 20th century?

2. How do international laws differ from domestic laws?

3. Will international law continue to develop?

2. Read and translate the text.

Text

Vocabulary

1. public international law — международное публичное право

2. private international law — международное частное право

3. supranational law — наднациональное право

4. to surrender one’s right to – отказаться от своего права в чью-либо пользу

5. to condone smth — оправдывать, потворствовать

6. an express agreement — положительно выраженное соглашение

7. to participate halfheartedly — принимать участие без энтузиазма

8. to skirt the rules — обходить правила

9. to look to smth — учитывать что-либо

10. customary law — обычное право

International law is a set of rules, agreements and treaties that are binding between countries. There are three types of international law that can be referenced: public international law, private international law, and supranational law. Public international law focuses on the rights, obligations, and relationships between sovereign states and international organisations. It deals with issues of global concern, such as diplomatic relations, human rights, armed conflicts, and international trade. Private international law addresses matters involving individuals and corporations of different states and determines the jurisdiction that has authority to hear a legal dispute, and which jurisdiction’s laws should be applied in a particular case. Supranational law refers to the situation wherein nations surrender to the court their right to make certain judicial decisions.

When sovereign states enter into agreements that are binding and enforceable, it’s called international law. Countries come together to make binding rules that they believe benefit their citizens. International laws promote peace, justice, common interests, and trade.

International laws apply to governments. It’s up to each state government to implement and follow international laws. A country’s laws apply to citizens and other people that are present in the country. However, it’s up to the country’s governing authority to apply international law and keep their agreements with the other countries that are involved.

International law might address and regulate any of the following issues:

• human rights

• treatment of refugees

• prosecution for international crimes

• arms agreements and controls

• how states can claim new territories

• regulating common spaces like water and outer space

• trade between states

• preventing war

• when it’s admissible for a state to use force

• fair treatment of prisoners

• preserving the environment

One of the complex issues in international law is the issue of sovereignty. That’s the idea that the state is supreme, and that a state isn’t subject to the rules of any other country or body. It’s the idea that one country can’t tell another country what to do. State sovereignty is a relatively new concept in history that rose as more governments organised themselves into states in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Because of the notion of state sovereignty, international law may only be as effective as the extent of the country’s true, honest participation in making and following the international laws and treaties that they agree to. To the extent that a state may halfheartedly participate in an international agreement only with the hope of making other countries happy, enforcing international law can be a challenge. Some countries might claim to follow an agreement while skirting the rules, and others might not even try to hide their failure to follow the international agreements that they’re a party to. International leaders, philosophers and politicians continue to debate the authority and enforceability of international law in light of modern state sovereignty.

International law generally comes from three sources: treaties, customs, and general principles of law. Treaties are express agreements that countries enter into voluntarily. They’re written agreements. The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969 calls for interpretation of treaties based on the plain language of the words in the treaties. The context of the words and the presumption of good faith and good intentions can also play a role in interpreting a treaty. The United States signed the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties in 1970.

Customs are common practices between countries. They’re common practices that are so expected and consistent that countries operate with the belief that the custom is legally required and binding. Examples of customary law are the prohibitions of a state using or condoning genocide or slavery. Generally, as long as a state doesn’t object to customary law, it applies to that state.

Finally, principles of law are general rules of law that develop over time. Principles of law are an understanding of how the law should work based on past rulings. In addition to looking at past rulings, international courts can also look to judicial opinions for help identifying and interpreting international law. Just like other judicial bodies look to case law and treaties, international courts and others interpreting international law may look to these sources for authorities on interpreting international law.

3. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations.

a. treatment of refugees

b. the plain language

c. case law

d. to look to smth

e. to condone genocide

f. to be subject to the rules

g. to hide one’s failure

h. express agreements

i. arms agreements

j. to follow international laws

k. binding agreement

l. to be up to each state

m. to reference

n. to be supreme

o. to promote peace, justice, common interests and trade

p. prosecution for international crimes

q. outer space

r. issues of global concern

4. Find English equivalents to the following words and word combinations in the text.

a. договор, приводимый в исполнение в принудительном порядке

b. приносить пользу гражданам

c. обращение с заключенными

d. принимать участие без энтузиазма

e. являться непростой задачей

f. свод правил

g. призывы к чему-либо

h. в той мере, насколько

i. добровольно

j. принцип добросовестного выполнения международных обязательств

k. потворствовать рабству

l. заключать соглашение

m. сохранять окружающую среду

n. обходить правила

o. понятие

p. отказываться от своего права в чью-либо пользу

5. Match the words on the left with their definitions on the right and give their Russian equivalents.

1. refugee | a. a lack of success
2. outer space | b. a sincere intention to deal fairly with others
3. treatment | c. a displaced person
4. challenge | d. fairness in the way that people are treated
5. failure | e. the murder of a whole group of people
6. good faith | f. the area outside the earth’s atmosphere
7. justice | g. the way you deal with someone
8. genocide | h. something new and difficult

6. Insert prepositions consulting the text.

1. It’s up _____ each state government to implement and follow international laws.

2. The context of the words and the presumption of good faith and good intentions can also play a role _____ interpreting a treaty.

3. International courts can also look _____ judicial opinions _____ help identifying and interpreting international law.

4. A country’s laws apply _____ citizens and other people that are present in the country.

5. International leaders, philosophers and politicians continue to debate the authority and enforceability of international law _____ light of modern state sovereignty.

6. Principles of law are an understanding _____ how the law should work based _____ past rulings.

7. A state isn’t subject _____ the rules of any other country or body.

7. Answer the questions.

1. What is international law?

2. What do international laws promote?

3. What does international law involve?

4. What is one of the complex issues in international law?

5. What does the effectiveness of international law depend on?

6. What are the sources of international law?

7. Give examples of customary law.

8. What does the notion “principles of law” mean?

8. Translate the sentences from Russian into English using the active vocabulary.

1. Международное право — это совокупность принципов и норм, регулирующих межгосударственные и иные международные отношения в целях обеспечения мира и безопасности, осуществления сотрудничества в разрешении международных проблем.

2. Международное право — это не отрасль, а отдельная система права, создаваемая государствами и межгосударственными организациями путем соглашений, предметом регулирования которых являются отношения между государствами, а также иные международные отношения.

3. Одним из основных источников международного права является международный договор. Он представляет собой письменное соглашение между субъектами международного права, регулируемое соответствующими нормами общего международного права.

4. Международное публичное право — это особая правовая система, регулирующая отношения между государствами.

5. Международное частное право представляет совокупность норм, регулирующих частноправовые отношения на международной арене.

6. Наднациональное право — форма международного права, при которой государства соглашаются ограничить себя в некоторых правах и делегировать ряд полномочий наднациональным органам.

7. Когда суверенные государства заключают соглашения, которые имеют обязательную силу и подлежат исполнению, это называется международным правом. Международное право содействует обеспечению мира, справедливости, общим интересам и развитию торговли.

9. A large number of Latin words and phrases are used in international law. Match each Latin word or expression with its English definition.

1. lex fori | a. the law of the place where a property is situated
2. lex situs | b. the body of treaties, UN conventions, and other international agreements
3. jus inter gentes | c. law that must be followed by all countries.
4. jus gentium | d. is the belief that an action was carried out as a legal obligation.
5. opinio juris | e. is a concept of international law within the ancient Roman legal system and Western law traditions based on or influenced by it.
6. jus cogens | f. the law of the court in which a proceeding is brought

Grammar revision

Types of Conditional Sentences

There are four kinds of conditionals:

The zero conditional is present tense and expresses a fact. It tells us about something that always happens under certain conditions.

• If you have a problem, you take legal advice.

• When people break laws, they go to prison.

The 1st conditional tells us what may happen in the future if a certain condition is met:

• If you don’t make a contract in writing, it will be difficult to enforce it in court.

• You will be legally bound to do some work if you take money for it.

The 2nd conditional imagines what would happen if something were true — but it’s not. This is often called the “present unreal conditional”. The verb after the “if” is in simple past form, even though it’s talking about the present. This tells listeners that the suggestion is imaginary, not true.

(In formal use the verb “be” is also in plural form, even for singulars, as another clue. See “if something were true” above. Speaking casually, many people use ‘was.’)

• If I were President, I would make new laws.

• If there were no laws, there would be anarchy in the society then.

The 3rd conditional talks about how the past might have been different if different steps had been taken. The verb after the “if” is (again) farther into the past. In this case it’s a past perfect. The independent clause is a conditional perfect using would or another modal verb.

• If you had studied, you would have passed that exam.

• If they hadn’t breached the contract, we wouldn’t have started an action in court.

1. Translate the sentences from English into Russian.

1. Even if the law is not able to stop the outbreak of war, it will govern the conduct of hostilities.

2. If the laws of a nation-state were applicable in regional agreements, there would be no need for supranational law.

3. If the United Nations hadn`t developed new advisory standards, there would be no Declaration of Human Rights.

4. Had the circumstances been more favourable the parties would have come to an agreement.

5. If the East African community becomes a political federation, it will be another example of a supranational legal framework alongside with the European Union.

2. Translate the sentences from Russian into English. Use the dictionary if necessary.

1. Если бы сопротивление враждующих сторон было преодолено, мир был бы установлен.

2. Если бы не было Венской конвенции, многие международные проблемы было бы трудно разрешить.

3. Если бы не соблюдались принципы международного права, не удавалось бы избегать международных конфликтов.

4. Если мы обратимся к статье 2 Венской конвенции, то найдем там определение договора.

5. Если вы разбираетесь в вопросах международного публичного права, то сможете выступить на конференции.

Unit 2. The United Nations Organization

Lead-in

1. Discuss the questions in pairs. Use the following word combinations.

in my view (in my opinion)
personally, I think
as far as I’m concerned
according to (smb)
I agree with you
I doubt
I have my doubts about
yes, you could be right but I’m not sure (that)
I agree to some extent but
I’m afraid I totally disagree
по-моему
я считаю
что касается меня
как считает
я с Вами согласен
я сомневаюсь
я не уверен (в чем-либо)
возможно, Вы правы, но я не уверен (что)
я согласен в какой-то мере, но
боюсь, что я совсем не согласен

1. What do you know about the United Nations?

2. Do you think the UN is a governmental organisation?

3. What city is associated with the United Nations?

4. Does the UN fight against terrorism?

2. Read and translate the text.

Text 1

Vocabulary

1. an aim — цель (syn. purpose, objective, goal)

2. to facilitate cooperation — содействовать сотрудничеству (syn. to promote)

3. to maintain peace — сохранить мир (syn. to preserve)

4. to provide a platform for dialogue — создавать платформу для диалога

5. human rights — права человека

6. to promote respect for human rights — содействовать соблюдению прав человека

7. international security — международная безопасность

8. to achieve world peace — добиваться глобального мира

9. the UN member-states — страны — члены ООН

10. the UN headquarters — штаб-квартира ООН

11. the UN Charter — Устав ООН

12. the UN General Assembly — Генеральная Ассамблея ООН

13. the UN Secretary General — Генеральный секретарь ООН

14. the UN Security Council — Совет Безопасности ООН

15. the Economic and Social Council — Экономический и Социальный Совет

16. the International Court of Justice –Международный Суд

17. public figure — общественный деятель

18. a successor — преемник

19. to espouse the idea — вдохновиться идеей

The United Nations (UN) is an international organisation whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achieving world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between countries, and to provide a platform for a dialogue.

There are currently nearly 200 member states, including nearly every recognised independent state in the world. From its headquarters on international territory in New York City, the UN and its specialised agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout the year.

The organisation is divided into administrative bodies, primarily:

— the General Assembly (the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ)

— the Security Council (decides certain resolutions for peace and security);

— the Economic and Social Council (assists in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development)

— the Secretariat (provides studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN)

— the International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ)

Additional bodies deal with the governance of all other UN System agencies, such as the World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations Children`s Fund (UNICEF), etc.

The UN`s most visible public figure who serves as the chief administrative officer of the United Nations is the Secretary-General, appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a five-year, renewable term.

The organisation is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, and has six official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.

The UN was founded as a successor to the League of Nations, which was widely considered to have been ineffective in its role as an international governing body, as it had been unable to prevent World War II. The term “United Nations” was first used by Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt, in the 1942 Declaration by United Nations, which united the Allied countries of WWII under the Atlantic Charter, and soon became a term widely used to refer to them. Declarations signed at wartime Allied conferences in 1943 espoused the idea of the UN. Those and later talks outlined the organisation`s proposed purposes, membership, organs, and ideals in regard to peace, security, and cooperation.

On 25 April 1945, the UN Conference on International Organization began in San-Francisco, attended by 50 governments and a number of non-governmental organisations involved in drafting the Charter of the UN. The UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 upon ratification of the Charter by the five permanent members of the Security Council — France, the Republic of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States — and by a majority of the other 46 signatories. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, and the Security Council, took place in Westminster Central Hall in London in January 1946. According to the Charter, the UN is to maintain international peace and security, to develop friendly relations among nations, to cooperate in solving international problems and in promoting respect for human rights.

3. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations.

a. to facilitate cooperation

b. member states

c. to achieve world peace

d. to provide a platform for a dialogue

e. the UN headquarters

f. a successor

g. to prevent World War II h. international security

i. to hold meetings

j. substantive issues

k. ineffective

l. to draft the Charter of the UN m. to come into existence

4. Find English equivalents to the following words and word combinations in the text.

a. международная безопасность

b. содействовать сотрудничеству

c. соблюдать права человека

d. обеспечивать платформу для диалога

e. важные вопросы

f. сохранять мир во всем мире

g. согласно Уставу

h. Генеральный секретарь ООН

i. предотвратить войну

j. преемник Лиги Наций

k. прекратить войны

l. штаб-квартира

m. Генеральная Ассамблея ООН

n. Совет Безопасности

5. Answer the questions.

1. When was the UN founded and for what purpose?

2. When was the term “United Nations” first used and by whom?

3. What countries ratified the UN Charter?

4. What did the UN Charter set out?

5. What are the main bodies of the UN?

6. When did the UN officially come into existence?

7. When and where did the first meetings of the General Assembly and the Security Council take place?

6. Translate the sentences from Russian into English using the active vocabulary. Consult the dictionary if necessary.

1. Целью ООН является поддержание международного мира и безопасности, разрешение спорных вопросов путем переговоров.

2. Основными органами ООН являются: Генеральная Ассамблея, Совет Безопасности, Экономический и Социальный Совет, Международный Суд, Секретариат, — каждый из которых включает в себя большое количество комитетов и подкомитетов.

3. Устав ООН был подписан 50 странами в 1945 году в Сан-Франциско, Калифорния.

4. ООН всегда руководствовалась принципом невмешательства во внутренние дела независимых государств и пыталась урегулировать споры конфликтующих сторон.

5. ООН выступает за осуществление международного сотрудничества в экономической, социальной, культурной и гуманитарной областях.

7. Complete the text by choosing the correct word and word combination from the box.

a. may be convened | b. peace and security | c. annual sessions | d. on the agenda
e. fails to exercise | f. special sessions | g. member nations | h. lack of unanimity
i. the UN budget | j. representatives | k. the charter | l. Secretary General
m. entitled to one vote | n. maintenance | o. collective measures | p. breach of peace

The General Assembly is composed of representatives of all ___1___. Each nation may send not more than five ___2___ to each session. Each nation is ___3___.

The General Assembly meets in regular ___4___ and in ___5___ when necessary. Special sessions are convoked by the ___6___ at the request of the Security Council or of a majority of the members of the UN.

Important matters, such as international ___7___, admitting new members, ___8___ are decided by two-thirds majority. In recent years, a special effort has been made to reach decisions through consensus, rather than by formal vote.

Any matter within the scope of ___9___ may be brought before the General Assembly, which may make recommendations on all except issues ___10___ of the Security Council. However, the General Assembly in November, 1950, decided that if the Security Council, because of ___11___ among its permanent members, ___12___ its primary responsibility for ___13___ of international peace and security, in any case where there appears to be a threat to peace, ___14___ or act of aggression, the Assembly may consider it and recommend ___15___ including the use of armed forces to maintain or restore peace. In such cases, the General Assembly ___16___ within 24 hours in an emergency special session.

8. Read the text and decide whether the statements are true or false.

Text 2

1. There are 20 Security Council members.

2. The Security Council may convene from September to December.

3. The Security Council has the power to make binding decisions that member governments have agreed to carry out.

4. The International Court of Justice sits in New York.

5. A nation not a UN member may not appear at the Security Council discussions if it is a party to a dispute.

6. When the Security Council is handling a dispute or situation the General Assembly makes recommendations.

The Security Council consists of 15 members, 5 with permanent seats (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States). The remaining 10 are elected for 2-year terms by the General Assembly, they are not eligible for immediate re-election.

The Security Council has the primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security and members agree to carry out its decisions. The Council may investigate any dispute that threatens international peace and security. When the Security Council is handling a dispute or situation the General Assembly makes no recommendation unless the Council requests it.

The Security Council functions continuously, each member being represented at all times. It may change its place of meeting.

Any member of the UN may participate in its discussions and a nation not a member of the UN may appear if it is a party to a dispute.

The Security Council may decide to enforce its decisions without the use of arms. Such measures include interruption of economic relations, break in transportation and communications, and severance of diplomatic relations. If such measures fail the Council may call on UN members to furnish armed forces and assistance. The right of individual or collective self-defense is not prohibited by membership in the UN, and if a member nation is attacked it may do what is necessary, reporting this to the Security Council, which may take independent action. However, the Council encourages regional arrangements or agencies by means of which local disputes can be settled without getting as far as the Council, after the Council has approved this method.

The Economic and Social Council

Economic and Social Council consists of twenty-seven members. The Council is concerned with financial and technical assistance to the less developed countries, the international protection of refugees and aid to the world’s children.

The International Court of Justice

The principal judicial organ of the United Nations is the International Court of Justice which sits at the Hague in the Netherlands. It is composed of fifteen judges who are elected by the Security Council and the General Assembly.

The Secretariat

The Secretariat comprises the Secretary-General and tens of thousands of international UN staff members who carry out the day-to-day work of the UN as mandated by the General Assembly and the Organization’s other principal bodies.

Grammar revision

1. Translate the following sentences into Russian.

Models:

1. If we are to make inroads on crime and delinquency we must make inroads on poverty. Если мы намерены нанести удар по организованной и детской преступности, мы должны бороться с бедностью.

2. The need for measures to protect the environment becomes more urgent every day if nature is to be preserved.

Необходимость в мерах по защите окружающей среды с каждым днем становится все более насущной, если мы хотим, чтобы (для того, чтобы) природа была сохранена.

1. Man-made rules are essential if the community is to work properly.

2. If the Government is to handle the problem of poverty, there are a number of measures to be urgently taken.

3. If civilisation is to survive, we must cultivate the science of human relationships — the ability of people to work together at peace.

4. Science is essential if environmental concerns are to be translated into practical actions.

5. Governments had to make and enforce appropriate law, if social control was to be exercised.

6. If statutes are to fit particular cases, they need to be specially interpreted by the courts.

7. If an appeal is to be made against the judgement, it must be made within a limited period of time.

8. The applicant must satisfy a few requirements if he is to qualify for free legal aid.

9. The WTO dispute settlement agreement stresses that “prompt compliance with recommendations of the DSB* is essential if effective resolution of disputes is to be to the benefit of all Members”.

10. The GATT** rules are helpful in ensuring nondiscrimination, but much more is required if transaction costs are to be reduced significantly.

*the Dispute Settlement Body — Орган по разрешению споров

*the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade — Генеральное соглашение по тарифам и торговле

Unit 3. What Are Human Rights?

Lead-in

1. Discuss these issues.

1. The principle of universality of human rights is the cornerstone of international human rights law.

2. Human rights can never be taken away, although they can sometimes be restricted.

3. Everyone has the right to freedom of expression.

2. Translate the text in writing.

Human rights are rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or any other status. Human rights include the right to life and liberty, freedom from slavery and torture, freedom of opinion and expression, the right to work and education, and many more. Everyone is entitled to these rights, without discrimination. International human rights law lays down the obligations of Governments to act in certain ways or to refrain from certain acts, in order to promote and protect human rights and fundamental freedoms of individuals or groups.

3. Read the text and answer the questions.

1. What was the central reason for creating the UN?

2. When was the Universal Declaration of Human rights adopted?

3. What principles enshrined in the Declaration are being implemented by the UN and its agencies?

4. What is the purpose of the United Nations Human Rights Council?

5. What does the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples outline?

6. What does the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples prohibit?

Text

Vocabulary

1. the pursuit of human rights — соблюдение прав человека

2. atrocities — зверства, злодеяния

3. human rights violation — нарушение прав человека

4. to that end — для достижения этой цели

5. to take up human rights issues — рассматривать вопросы прав человека

6. high-profile positions — высокие посты

7. indigenous peoples — коренные народы

8. populace — население

9. to be afflicted by – пострадать от

The pursuit of human rights was the central reason for creating the UN, World War II atrocities and genocide led to a ready consensus that the new organisation must work to prevent any similar tragedies in the future. An early objective was creating a legal framework for considering and acting on complaints about human rights violations. The UN Charter obliges all member nations to promote “universal respect for, and observance of, “human rights” and to take “joint and separate action” to that end. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, though not legally binding, was adopted by the General Assembly in 1948. The Assembly regularly takes up human rights issues.

The UN and its agencies are implementing the principles enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A case in point is support by the UN for countries in transition to democracy, technical assistance in providing free and fair elections, improving judicial structures, drafting constitutions, training human rights officials. The UN is also a forum to support the right of women to participate fully in the political, economic, and social life of their countries. The UN contributes to raising consciousness of the concept of human rights through its covenants and its attention to specific abuses through its General Assembly, Security Council resolutions, or International Court of Justice rulings.

The purpose of the United Nations Human Rights Council, established in 2006, is to address human rights violations. The Council is the successor to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, which was often criticised for the high-profile positions it gave to member states that did not guarantee the human rights of their own citizens. The council has
47 members distributed by region, each serve a three-year term, and may not serve three consecutive terms. A candidate to the body must be approved by a majority of the General Assembly.

The rights of indigenous peoples around the world is also a focus for the UN, with the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples being approved by the General Assembly in 2007. The declaration outlines the individual and collective rights to culture, language, education, identity, employment and health, thereby addressing post-colonial issues which have confronted indigenous peoples for centuries. The declaration aims to maintain, strengthen and encourage the growth of indigenous institutions, cultures and traditions. It also prohibits discrimination against indigenous peoples and promotes their active participation in matters which concern their past, present and future.

In conjunction with other organisations such as the Red Cross, the UN provides food, drinking water, shelter and other humanitarian services to populaces suffering from famine, displaced by war, or afflicted by other disasters. Major humanitarian branches of the UN are World Food Programme (which helps feed more than 100 million people a year in
80 countries), the office of the High Commissioner for Refugees with projects in over 116 countries, as well as peacekeeping projects in over 24 countries.

4. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations.

a. the pursuit of human rights

b. a three-year term

c. to maintain the growth of indigenous institutions

d. to address post-colonial issues

e. a covenant

f. the High Commissioner for Refugees

g. the Red Cross

h. to promote universal respect for human rights

i. the Security Council

j. to be legally binding

k. consecutive terms

l. populaces, displaced by war

m. to take joint and separate action

5. Find English equivalents to the following words and word combinations in the text.

a. злодеяния

b. страдать от голода

c. Всемирная продовольственная программа

d. высокие посты

e. повысить осведомленность

f. принципы, закрепленные во Всеобщей декларации прав человека

g. конкретные нарушения

h. соблюдение прав

i. Генеральная Ассамблея

j. полноценно участвовать

k. преемник

l. переход к демократии

6. Match the names of the United Nations organisations with their definitions.

1. the General Assembly | a. an international organisation that takes care of people who are suffering because of war, hunger, disease, or other problems
2. the United Nations Human Rights Council | b. a part of the United Nations whose purpose is to prevent war and keep peace
3. the Red Cross | c. the main deliberative body of the United Nations
4. the Security Council | d. the most important court of law within the United Nations that is responsible for solving disagreements between the governments of different countries and giving legal advice to international organisations
5. the International Court of Justice | e. an inter-governmental body within the United Nations system made up of 47 States responsible for the promotion and protection of all human rights around the globe

7. Say whether the following statements are true or false. Explain why.

1. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the Security Council in 1945.

2. The UN Charter obliges all member nations to promote respect for and observance of human rights.

3. The UN does not support the rights of women.

4. The UN Human Rights Council was established in 2000.

5. The UN Commission on Human Rights was criticised for not taking up human rights issues regularly.

6. The Declaration of Human Rights of Indigenous Peoples does not promote the active participation in matters which concern their life.

8. Render the text in English.

Права и свободы человека можно классифицировать по следующим критериям:

По содержанию прав и свобод:

— гражданские и политические права;

— экономические, социальные и культурные права;

— коллективные права.

Гражданские права – это права, которые принадлежат человеку как члену гражданского общества: право на жизнь, свободу, равенство, недопущение пыток и т. д. Этими правами обладают как граждане государства, так и иностранные граждане и лица без гражданства.

Политические права связаны с участием граждан в управлении государством и в общественной жизни. Политические права представлены избирательным кодексом: право принимать участие в ведении государственных дел, право голосовать и быть избранным и т. д.

Экономические права непосредственно связаны с гражданскими правами и включают право владеть имуществом, право на справедливое вознаграждение за труд и другие права.

Социальные права должны обеспечивать человеку достойный и достаточный уровень жизни, а также социальную защищенность: право на социальное обеспечение, жилище, охрану здоровья, на отдых и т.д.

Культурные права и свободы человека призваны гарантировать духовное развитие человека: право на образование, доступ к культурным ценностям, свободу художественного творчества и другие права;

По субъектам:

— общие права и свободы, которые имеют универсальный характер, принадлежат всем категориям лиц;

— права, принадлежащие отдельным социальным группам (женщины, дети, беженцы, инвалиды, пожилые люди и др.);

По возможности ограничения прав и свобод:

— права и свободы, которые могут подлежать ограничению;

— права и свободы, которые не могут быть ограничены.

В Международном пакте о гражданских и политических правах 1966 года закреплен перечень статей, содержащих права, которые не могут быть ограничены ни при каких обстоятельствах, даже в период чрезвычайного положения в государстве, например: право на жизнь, недопущение пыток, недопущение медицинских экспериментов, рабства и т. д.;

По приоритетности прав и свобод:

— право на жизнь образует первооснову всех других прав и свобод. Оно представляет собой абсолютную ценность мировой цивилизации, так как без соблюдения данного права все остальные права утрачивают смысл и значение.

9. Find the information on the following themes on the Internet and make a presentation on one of the topics.

1. The difference between human rights and civil rights.

2. Basic rights and duties of the individual and the citizen enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation.

3. Human Rights Watch.

Grammar revision

1. Translate the following sentences into Russian.

Example: I wish this law was passed in the nearest future. — Хорошо бы, чтобы этот закон был принят в ближайшем будущем.

He’s bad at doing business and I wish he hadn’t founded a sole proprietorship. — Он не умеет заниматься бизнесом и зря основал частное предприятие.

I wish they had been present at the trial. — Жаль, что их не было на суде.

1. I wish they behaved reasonably.

2. I wish you hadn’t deceived me.

3. I wish they had settled the dispute peacefully.

4. I wish they hadn’t breached the treaty.

5. I wish the transaction was considered valid.

6. I wish they had stopped the outbreak of war.

7. I wish they had reached a compromise.

8. I wish his rights were observed.

Unit 4. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

1. Read the text and answer the questions.

1. When was the UDHR adopted?

2. How many articles does the UDHR consist of?

3. What are the articles devoted to?

Text

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), foundational document of international human rights law. It has been referred to as humanity’s Magna Carta by Eleanor Roosevelt, who chaired the United Nations (UN) Commission on Human Rights that was responsible for the drafting of the document. After minor changes it was adopted by the UN General Assembly on December 10, 1948 (now celebrated annually as Human Rights Day), as a “common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations”. The French jurist René Cassin was originally recognised as the principal author of the UDHR.

The UDHR comprises 30 articles that contain a comprehensive listing of key civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights. Articles 3 through 21 outline civil and political rights, which include the right against torture, the right to an effective remedy for human rights violations, and the right to take part in government. Articles 22 through 27 detail economic, social, and cultural rights, such as the right to work, the right to form and to join trade unions, and the right to participate freely in the cultural life of the community. The latter right relates to everyone’s entitlement to be directly involved in and appreciative of the arts, and it is clearly linked to the full development of one’s own personality (which, in accordance with article 26, constitutes one of the goals of the right to education). Because of the ideological fissures caused by the Cold War and the concomitant failure to develop a legally binding international human rights instrument, it became common to view civil and political rights independently of economic, social, and cultural rights, though this is a misinterpretation of both the letter and the spirit of the document. For example, it is impossible for a society to fulfill its commitment to the right to education (Article 26) without taking seriously its commitment to the right to seek, receive, and impart information (Article 19). Likewise, it is difficult to envisage the realisation of the right to form and to join trade unions (Article 23) without a commensurate realisation of the right to peaceful assembly and association (Article 20).

2. Complete the first ten articles of the UDHR with the words form the box.

THE DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

сharge | detention | discrimination | exile
freedoms | law | liberty | punishment
race | remedy | rights | slavery
tribunal | free |  |

Article 1

All human beings are born ______ and equal in dignity and rights.

Article 2

Everyone is entitled to all the rights and ______ set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as______, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.

Article 3

Everyone has the right to life, ______ and security of person.

Article 4

No one shall be held in ______ or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.

Article 5

No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or ______.

Article 6

Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the ______.

Article 7

All are equal before the law and are entitled without any ______ to equal protection of the law.

Article 8

Everyone has the right to an effective ______ by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.

Article 9

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, ______ or______.

Article 10

Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial ______, in the determination of his ______ and obligations and of any criminal ______ against him.

3. Match the words on the left with their definitions on the right and give their Russian equivalents.

1. race | a. the same (adjective)
2. political | b. the things that you should be allowed to have (noun)
3. slavery | c. a feeling you have that you have done right or wrong (noun)
4. constitution | d. to have the right to do or have something (verb)
5. detention | e. difference (noun)
6. tribunals | f. a group of people with distinct physical characteristics or culture (noun)
7. violation | g. referring to government or party politics (adjective)
8. liberty | h. having the legal power over someone or something (adjective)
9. fundamental | i. the act of limiting something (noun)
10. equal | j. the situation of being free (noun)
11. rights | k. the situation of being a person who belongs to someone and works for them without payment (noun)
12. conscience | l. the situation of having to work very hard for someone, usually in poor conditions and with very time or no pay (noun)
13. entitled | m. the buying and selling of people against their will (noun: 2 words)
14. obligations | n. to say that something must not happen (verb)
15. degrading | o. hurting someone badly so that they are forced to give information (noun)
16. impartial | p. causing fear, anguish and inferiority (adjective)
17. jurisdictional | q. the unfair treatment of someone because of their colour, class, religion, language, etc. (noun)
18. servitude | r. the act of breaking a rule (noun)
19. distinction | s. the act of encouraging, persuading or advising someone to do something morally or legally wrong (noun)
20. limitation | t. a court, often one which specialises in a particular area of law (noun)
21. exile | u. basic, essential (adjective)
22. torture | v. laws and principles under which a country is governed (noun)
23. prohibited | w. done at random, without reason (adjective)
24. slave trade | x. the act of keeping someone so that he/she cannot escape or enjoy freedom (noun)
25. discrimination | y. the punishment of being made to live in another country, or another part of a country (noun)
26. incitement | z. not biased or prejudiced (adjective)
27. arbitrary | aa. duty to do something (noun)

4. Here are Articles 11–20 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Summarise the main idea of each article.

Article 11

1. Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence.

2. No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.

Article 12

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

Article 13

1. Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state.

2. Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.

Article 14

1. Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.

2. This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.

Article 15

1. Everyone has the right to a nationality.

2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality.

Article 16

1. Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage, and at its dissolution.

2. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.

3. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the state.

Article 17

1. Everyone has the right to own property alone, as well as in association with others.

2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.

Article 18

Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.

Article 19

Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.

Article 20

1. Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.

2. No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

5. Here are paraphrased Articles 21–30 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Match the explanation of each article on the left with its summary on the right.

Article 21
Everyone has the right to take part in their country’s political affairs either by belonging to the government themselves or by choosing politicians who have the same ideas as them. Elections should take place regularly and voting should be held by secret ballot. Every adult should have the right to vote and all votes should be equal.
a. Freedom from interference in all of the above rights.

Article 22 The society in which you live should help you to develop and to make the most of all the advantages (culture, work, social welfare) which are offered to you. | b. The right to free choice of employment with a possibility to form or to join trade unions.
Article 23 Every adult has the right to a job, and to receive a salary that can support him/her and his/her family. Men and women should get paid the same amount of money for doing the same job. Anyone can join a trade union. | c. The right to rest and leisure.
Article 24 Everyone should have the right to rest from work and to take regular paid holidays. | d. The right to adequate living standards.

Article 25
Everyone has the right to a good life, with enough food, clothing, housing and healthcare. You should be helped if you are out of work, if you are ill, if you are old or if your husband or wife is dead. Women who are going to have a baby should receive special help. All children should have the same rights, whether their mother is married or unmarried.
e. The right to social security.

Article 26 Everyone has the right to go to school and should go to school. In the elementary and fundamental stages it shall be free and compulsory. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of school that shall be attended by their children. | f. Duty to preserve other people’s rights and freedoms.
Article 27 Everyone shall have the right to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits. Everyone is entitled to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author. | g. The right to education.
Article 28 Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully implemented. | h. The right to participate in the government of one’s own country.
Article 29 Everyone should have duties to other people. Human rights should be observed and protected by everyone in a spirit of mutual respect. | i. The right to participate in the cultural life of the community.
Article 30 Nobody should take away these rights and freedoms from us. | j. The right to the established order of human rights’ protection

6. In each of situations 1–25, one or more of the articles from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights has been broken or abused. Match each of the situations with the relevant article or articles and say what human rights are violated.

1. Children between the age of 5 and 11 have to go to school, but their parents must pay for it.

2. A man has his house broken into and his belongings stolen. He goes to the police, but they tell him to go away because they have more important things to do.

3. Archie White, a magistrate, has his car stolen. The police arrest and charge the man they think is responsible. The next day the man is taken to court for an initial hearing. The chair of the justices (the head magistrate) in the courtroom is Archie White. He tells the members of the public that they have to leave the courtroom.

4. Staff employed by Kaput Computers have to start work at 7 in the morning and work until 7 in the evening, with only a half hour break for lunch. They work from Monday to Saturday, and do not get paid leave.

5. A couple wants to have a baby. The government says that the country is overpopulated and tells them that they cannot have a baby yet.

6. John Doe is arrested because the police think he has killed someone. Before his trial has begun, a popular newspaper publishes an article about him (complete with photographs of his arrest) with the headline “Vicious murderer John Doe caught!”

7. Two friends, one white and one black, have been threatened with violence. They go to the police to ask for protection. The police agree to help the white man, but not the black man.

8. A woman who lives in a capital city wants to visit her sick father, who lives 200 km away. She is told that she cannot leave the city to visit him.

9. A poor man murders someone and is sent to prison. A rich man commits a murder in similar circumstances but is allowed to go free.

10. A robber is sent to prison for 5 years. While he is in prison, the government confiscates all his belongings, and then destroys his house.

11. A man travels to another country where he asks to stay because he is frightened of remaining in his home country. He is immediately sent back to the country he came from.

12. The Republic of Istanata has never given women the right to vote.

13. A newspaper editor dislikes a famous popular actress; he publishes an article about her. The article describes the actress as ‘ugly, stupid and unable to act.’

14. The government intercepts, opens and reads one of their key opponent’s letters and other mail.

15. A famous political author writes a book criticising the police. She then leaves her home to go on a tour to promote her book. While she is away, the police start harassing her husband and children.

16. A husband and wife get divorced. The law in their country says that in any divorce case the man automatically gets custody of the children.

17. A woman joins a trade union. The company she works for discovers this and immediately dismisses her.

18. A man loses his job and cannot find work. His country does not offer financial support for people who are out of work.

19. A 17-year-old boy murders someone a few days before his 18th birthday. He is arrested, and six months later the case goes to court. His country has the death penalty for murder if the murderer is 18 or over. The judge sentences him to death, and he is executed.

20. A policeman does not like the look of a young man sitting on a park bench, so arrests him, takes him to the police station and puts him in a police cell.

21. The police suspect that a man is a member of a terrorist organisation. They hit him, deprive him of food, water, and sleep, and burn him with cigarettes until he confesses.

22. A poor man borrows money from a wealthy factory owner. He is unable to pay the money back. The factory owner takes the man’s 12-year-old son and makes him work in the factory to pay off the debt.

23. A new government closes all the churches, temples, mosques, and synagogues in its country, and forbids anyone from attending services there.

24. A family wants to take a holiday abroad and apply for passports. They are told that they cannot have passports and cannot go abroad.

25. Mr. Smith and Ms. Jones do exactly the same job for the same company. They have the same qualifications and the same experience. Mr. Smith receives $35000 a year, and Ms. Jones receives $28000 a year.

Glossary

agenda | повестка (дня, конференции и проч.)
– on the agenda | на повестке дня
arbitrary (adjective) | произвольный
– arbitrary arrest | произвольный арест
– arbitrary interference with one’s privacy | произвольное вмешательство в личную жизнь (кого-либо)
atrocity | зверство, злодеяние
asylum | убежище
convene | созывать
deprive of smth | лишать чего-либо
facilitate cooperation | содействовать сотрудничеству
famine | голод
follow the international agreements | соблюдать международные соглашения
indigenous peoples | коренные народы
issue (noun) | вопрос, проблема
– an issue of global concern | проблема международного уровня
law | право, закон
– international law | международное право
– public international law | международное публичное право
– private international law | международное частное право
– supranational law | наднациональное право
– customary law | обычное право
maintain international peace | поддерживать международный мир
member state | государство-участник
non-governmental organisation | неправительственная организация
non-interference in the internal affairs | невмешательство во внутренние дела
preserve the environment | сохранять окружающую среду
presumption of good faith | принцип добросовестного выполнения (международных обязательств)
prevent war | предотвращать войну
promote | способствовать, продвигать
– promote respect for human rights | способствовать соблюдению прав человека
– promote trade | способствовать развитию торговли
provide a platform for a dialogue | создавать платформу для диалога
right | право (на что-либо)
– be entitled to equal rights | иметь равные права
– grant the rights | предоставлять права
– deny the right | отказывать в праве
– surrender one’s right to smb | отказаться от своего права в чью-либо пользу
– human rights | права человека
– human rights violation | нарушение прав человека
– take up human rights issues | рассматривать вопросы прав человека
– the pursuit of human rights | соблюдение прав человека
rule | правило, норма (права)
– skirt the rules | обходить нормы
treatment (noun) | обращение (с чем-либо / кем-либо)
– treatment of refugees | обращение с беженцами
– degrading treatment | обращение, унижающее достоинство (человека)
servitude | подневольный труд
successor | преемник

Chapter 2. INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS FOR THE PROSECUTION SERVICE

Unit 1. Introduction. Basic Terms Revision

1. Study the following terms, their origin and definitions.

Attorney (Middle English from Old French atorne, past participle of atorner “assign”, “appoint”, from a “towards” + torner “to turn”)

a. a person, typically a lawyer, appointed to act for another in business or legal matters.

b. a legal practitioner properly qualified to represent a client in a court of law (chiefly US). In English law a legal practitioner entitled to conduct litigation in lower courts (distinguished from counsel), a solicitor.

Procurator (Middle English (denoting a steward): from Old French procuratour or Latin procurator ‘administrator, finance agent’, from procurat — “taken care of”, from the verb procurare)

a. in ancient Rome, an official of the Roman Empire, especially the chief financial officer of a province.

b. in Scotland and some other legal systems, a lawyer, a legal official who accuses someone of a crime.

Prosecutor (derivative from to prosecute — Late Middle English, from Latin prosequi (pro+sequi “to follow”) “to pursue”, “to accompany”)

a. a legal representative who officially accuses someone of committing a crime by bringing a case against that person in a court of law.

Solicitor (Late Middle English (denoting an agent or deputy): from Old French solliciteur, from solliciter)

a. British. A member of the legal profession qualified to deal with conveyancing, the drawing up of wills, and other legal matters. A solicitor may also instruct barristers and represent clients in some courts.

b. North American. The chief law officer of a city, town, or government department.

2. Translate the sentences paying attention to the meaning of words and word combinations in bold. Use the dictionary if needed.

1. You and your attorney should understand your business situation thoroughly before you decide on a license.

2. Hastings said he might allow photographers into the courtroom for the verdict and the final arguments by attorneys.

3. The attorney general warned that legalising light drugs after the court ruling would be unconstitutional.

4. Top Manhattan divorce attorneys are representing each side.

5. Performing the functions of a public prosecutor, a procurator also had responsibility for ‘overseeing legality’, which meant the operation of the courts and state administration.

6. The office of the procurator general investigates and prosecutes crimes.

7. This records the restoration of the principles by Naevius, an assistant procurator, in the early 3rd century.

8. The deputy chief of police and the deputy city procurator allegedly watched the attack but did not intervene to stop it.

9. Procurators fiscal hardly ever take advantage of this power.

10. She had tons of trial experience as a prosecutor, and she’s done strictly civil litigation ever since she moved to Miami.

11. The chief prosecutor told the court that Johnson was guilty of a horrible crime and asked for the maximum sentence.

12. The fraud was so obvious that Daley had to permit a special prosecutor to be appointed to investigate.

13. A solicitor can both draw up your will and act as your executor if you so wish.

14. It is obviously important that everyone understands exactly how the law applies and your solicitor will be able to explain the situation.

15. The former deputy solicitor for Indian affairs at the U. S. Department of the Interior during the Obama administration said that up until the pandemic, tribes were the 13th largest employer in the United States.

3. Read the following historical references from Encyclopaedia Britannica and make a summary. Explain the meanings of the words in bold, use the dictionary if needed.

Procurator

Procurator, a government financial agent in ancient Rome. From the reign of the emperor Augustus (27 BC–AD 14), procurators were regularly appointed to official posts in the imperial administration of the provinces or in the departments of the imperial government concerning such matters as the grain supply, the mint, and the mines. Procurators of provinces supervised imperial finances in their respective jurisdictions. In imperial provinces the procurator served under a legate; in senatorial provinces he exercised more authority within the administration of the governor and his quaestor.

Procurators were also appointed to govern, with small troop detachments, certain lesser provinces. These procurators exercised both financial and judicial authority, even in capital cases, but were usually subject to the general authority of the governor of a major province in the region. In the 4th century AD the office was renamed rationalis.

Unit 2. The Role of Prosecutors in the Administration of Justice Worldwide

Lead-in

1. Do you think there are uniform standards regulating the work of the Prosecution Service worldwide?

2. Read the statement from the report of the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers and comment to what extent you agree or disagree with it. Do you think these principles are applicable to prosecutors throughout the world? What other features are common to prosecutors in different jurisdictions?

Prosecutors are the essential agents of the administration of justice, and as such should respect and protect human dignity and uphold human rights, thus contributing to ensuring due process and the smooth functioning of the criminal justice system. Prosecutors also play a key role in protecting society from a culture of impunity and function as gatekeepers to the judiciary.

3. Read and translate the text.

Text 1

Vocabulary

1. to encompass — включать в себя, охватывать

2. compliance — соответствие, соблюдение

3. an interim release — временное освобождение из-под стражи

4. bail — освобождение под залог/поручительство

5. diversion to alternatives to prosecution — замена уголовной ответственности альтернативными видами исправительного воздействия

6. custody — здесь: тюремное заключение, лишение свободы, заключение под стражу

7. vulnerable people — социально незащищенные слои населения

8. the public service — государственная служба

9. against a backdrop of – здесь: в соответствии с, на фоне

10. unwavering appreciation of fundamental human rights — здесь: абсолютное соблюдение основных прав человека

As essential agents of the administration of criminal justice, the prosecutor’s role is one of great responsibility. Few other positions in society are invested with the authority and responsibility to decide on issues fundamental to the administration of justice.

In most systems, the core functions of prosecutors are the decision to prosecute and representation of the prosecution in court. Key functions in some jurisdictions may also encompass investigating crime, supervision of investigators’ compliance with procedural rules, judicial interim release (“bail”), plea and sentence agreements, diversion of offenders to alternatives to prosecution, victim support, recommendations regarding sentence, the supervision of the execution of sentences and treatment of persons in custody, supervision of the implementation of the rule of law and observance of human rights and freedoms, etc. Additionally, in all systems the strategic role of prosecutors in criminal proceedings qualifies them to make recommendations concerning criminal justice policies.

In many systems, prosecutors may also have the role of representing the public interest and protecting vulnerable people (including children, disabled and aged persons and minority groups) in matters of civil or administrative law and may have a wider role within the public service. All prosecutorial decisions must be made against a backdrop of the requirements of domestic law and procedure and a constant and unwavering appreciation of fundamental human rights. Much is expected of prosecutors and their respective offices by the courts, investigative agencies, the accused, victims of crime and the public they serve, who all must have the fullest confidence that prosecutors are exercising their authority properly and in accordance with the rule of law.

4. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations.

a. essential agents

b. to encompass investigating crime

c. plea and sentence agreements

d. treatment of persons in custody

e. disabled and aged persons and minority groups

f. against a backdrop of the requirements of domestic law and procedure

g. to serve the public

h. unwavering appreciation of fundamental human rights

5. Find English equivalents to the following words and word combinations in the text.

a. отправление уголовного правосудия

b. быть наделенным полномочиями

c. основные функции

d. представление стороны государственного обвинения в суде

e. временное освобождение из-под стражи

f. соблюдение прав человека

g. осуществление принципа верховенства закона

h. социально незащищенные слои населения

6. Make collocations with the nouns on the left and suitable words in the same line on the right. Mind that one word in each line doesn’t fit. Make your own sentences with these collocations.

1. right(s) | a. to enforce, of audience, to break, deprivation of, to observe, to enjoy
2. duties | b. to assign, performance of, contractual, to exercise, legal, to fail
3. justice | c. to administer, of the peace, to bring to, miscarriage of, to escape, to state
4. sentence | d. to serve, to pass, enforceable, to declare, to award, lifetime
5. custody | e. to appoint, committal to, to be in, to escape from, to take into, police

7. Answer the questions.

1. What are the core functions of prosecutors in most jurisdictions?

2. What other functions may the prosecution service comprise in some countries?

3. What role do prosecutors play in the administration of criminal justice?

4. What are prosecutors guided by when making decisions?

5. Why is the public’s fullest confidence to prosecutors so crucial?

8. Read and translate the text.

Text 2

INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS FOR PROSECUTION AND PROSECUTORS

Vocabulary

1. an international instrument — международный договор

2. a court administrator — здесь: работник суда

3. the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights — Международный пакт о гражданских и политических правах

4. the absence of consideration — отсутствие упоминания/рассмотрения

5. instrumental — играющий важную роль

6. the Guidelines on the Role of Prosecutors — Международные стандарты деятельности прокуроров

7. ad hoc — специальный, назначенный по особому поручению

8. the International Association of Prosecutors (IAP) — Международная ассоциация прокуроров

9. impetus — толчок, стимул

10. asset tracking — отслеживание средств, учет материальных активов

11. a vehicle — здесь: инструмент

12. therein — в вышеуказанном

13. a benchmark — критерий, ориентир

14. to highlight — подчеркивать, привлекать внимание

15. a tenet — положение, норма, принцип

Despite the central role played by prosecutors in criminal proceedings, there is little mention of prosecutors in international instruments in comparison with references to judges, defence lawyers and court administrators.

For example, neither the Universal Declaration of Human Rights nor the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights mention prosecutors, and the case law of the Human Rights Committee of the United Nations gives little attention to the status of the prosecution. Despite this absence of consideration in international agreements, prosecutors can be considered instrumental in the implementation of many of the principles set forth by international instruments, such as the right to a fair trial, the right to be heard by a court, the principle of equality before the law and before the court, and the prohibition against torture.

The Guidelines on the Role of Prosecutors were adopted by the Eighth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders. Their purpose is described as follows:

The Guidelines ... which have been formulated to assist Member States in their tasks of securing and promoting the effectiveness, impartiality and fairness of prosecutors in criminal proceedings, should be respected and taken into account by Governments within the framework of their national legislation and practice, and should be brought to the attention of prosecutors, as well as other persons, such as judges, lawyers, members of the executive and the legislature and the public in general. The present Guidelines have been formulated principally with public prosecutors in mind, but they apply equally, as appropriate, to prosecutors appointed on an ad hoc basis.

The International Association of Prosecutors (IAP) was established in June 1995 at the United Nations offices in Vienna and was formally inaugurated at its first General Meeting in Budapest in September 1996. The main impetus for its formation was the rapid growth in serious transnational crime, particularly drug trafficking, money-laundering, and fraud. There was a perceived need for greater international cooperation between prosecutors and greater speed and efficiency in mutual assistance, asset tracking and other international cooperative measures. Its creation was also inspired by the United Nations, following the publication of the Guidelines on the Role of Prosecutors, since a vehicle was needed to promote the principles and standards contained therein.

The IAP Standards complement and expand the Guidelines and serve as an international benchmark for the conduct of individual prosecutors and prosecution services. They promote international cooperation, highlighting the need for independence. The IAP Standards assume a particular significance in that they are not the product of an agreement between States or governments but were written and adopted by prosecutors themselves, coming from all parts of the world and from different legal traditions, and may therefore be taken to represent the views of prosecutors themselves as to the standards that should apply to the profession of a prosecutor.

The role of the prosecution has also been referred to in several United Nations crime conventions, which seek to increase the effectiveness of investigations and prosecutions against serious crimes such as drug trafficking, organised crime, and corruption.

Despite the different legal traditions, it has proved possible to state principles of general applicability to prosecutors in different legal traditions, as the Guidelines, the IAP Standards and the various regional instruments demonstrate. Basic principles and tenets of the role and status of the prosecutor should remain uniform and unchanged, no matter where in the world and under which legal tradition these roles are performed.

9. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations.

a. the Human Rights Committee of the United Nations

b. to be considered instrumental

c. the right to be heard by a court

d. the UN Congress on Prevention of Crime and Treatment of Offenders

e. within the framework of the national legislation

f. a prosecutor appointed on an ad hoc basis

g. a vehicle to promote the principles

h. to serve as a benchmark

i. to highlight the need for independence

10. Find English equivalents to the following words and word combinations in the text.

a. международный договор

b. работник суда

c. право на справедливый суд

d. запрет на пытки

e. обеспечивать эффективность, беспристрастность и справедливость

f. быстрый рост международной преступности

g. взаимопомощь

h. отслеживание средств/активов

i. главный стимул

11. Read the following definitions and guess the concept they stand for.

1. A standard or point of reference against which things may be compared.

2. A formal or legal document, mostly international.

3. A formal written agreement between two or more people or groups of people which is recognised in law.

4. Something that makes a process or activity happen or happen more quickly.

5. Created or done for a particular purpose as necessary.

6. A principle, belief or doctrine generally held to be true, especially one held in common by members of an organisation, movement, or profession.

7. A way of achieving, producing, or expressing something.

12. Say if the following statements are true or false and explain why.

1. The central role of prosecutors is emphasised in most international documents.

2. The Guidelines on the Role of Prosecutors is an international agreement binding for all the signatory states.

3. The present Guidelines have been elaborated for both public prosecutors and those appointed on an ad hoc basis.

4. The International Association of Prosecutors was created with the aim of efficient international collaboration and support in preventing the growth of transnational crime.

5. The IAP Standards allow for international cooperation, underlining the need for hierarchy and strict subordination.

6. Numerous United Nations crime conventions came to the conclusion that it is hardly possible to develop general principles applicable to prosecutors throughout the world.

13. Answer the questions.

1. Why are prosecutors considered to be instrumental in the implementation of the legal principles set forth by international agreements?

2. Where were the Guidelines on the Role of Prosecutors adopted? What purpose do they state?

3. Where and when was the International Association of Prosecutors set up? What inspired the prosecutors to create the IAP?

4. What are the IAP Standards? How do they correlate with the Guidelines?

5. Should the IAP Standards and the Guidelines remain uniform and unchanged? Explain your opinion.

14. Look at the prepositions below. Consult a dictionary if you are not sure of their meaning. Complete the sentences with a suitable preposition from the list and translate them. Some prepositions can be used more than once.

by means of | according to | instead of
on behalf of | apart from | with regard to
owing to | in spite of/despite | with respect to

1. Prosecutors participate in court hearings __________ the State.

2. __________ the UN Guidelines both individual prosecutors and prosecution services shall act independently from other branches of power.

3. The role and status of prosecutors shall remain uniform and unchanged __________ different jurisdictions and their legal traditions.

4. A politician is said to have consulted a media lawyer __________ this matter.

5. The defence counsel agreed to the plea bargain __________ the defendant.

6. All prosecutorial decisions must be made __________ fundamental human rights.

7. The case was closed __________ a plea bargain as the accused had confessed and informed the prosecution on other planned bank robberies.

8. The Eighth UN Congress on Prevention of Crime adopted the guidelines __________the role of prosecutors.

9. __________ prosecuting cases in court, the prosecutors supervise the observance of rules and fundamental human rights by the governmental bodies.

10. As the case was of great public interest the prosecutor decided to bring it to court __________ offering a sentence agreement to the defence counsel.

11. The public prosecutor made a decision to drop a case __________ the lack of evidence.

15. Translate the sentences into English.

1. Международные стандарты деятельности прокуратуры служат ориентиром для осуществления функций прокурора.

2. Стимулом для создания Международной ассоциации прокуроров стал стремительный рост транснациональной преступности, в частности незаконного оборота наркотиков, отмывания денег и мошеннических действий.

3. Целью Международной ассоциации прокуроров является разработка и продвижение высоких стандартов этики и профессионального поведения прокуроров во всем мире.

4. Главными принципами деятельности прокурора являются законность, справедливость, беспристрастность, уважение к правам человека.

5. Стандарты Международной ассоциации прокуроров раскрывают такие аспекты, как статус прокуроров, организационная структура прокуратуры, права и обязанности прокуроров.

6. Вне зависимости от устоявшихся норм и традиций национальных правовых систем, общие принципы могут применяться к деятельности прокуроров в большинстве стран мира.

Unit 3. Prosecutorial Independence

Lead-in

1. Discuss the following questions.

1. Why do you think the principle of independence is essential for prosecutors in their work?

2. What other principles are of great importance for prosecutors in exercising their powers properly?

2. Read the text and match each paragraph (A, B, C) with a suitable title.

Principle of legality, principle of opportunity and independence |
Protecting prosecutorial independence |
Principle of independence |

Text 1

Vocabulary

1. to hold to account for smth — нести ответственность, привлекаться к ответственности за что-либо

2. unfettered — неограниченный

3. transparent — прозрачный, ясный, понятный

4. robust — устойчивый, надежный, стабильный

5. ethics — этика (профессиональная)

6. integrity — профессиональная добросовестность, неподкупность

7. discretion — право действовать по своему усмотрению

8. the principle of opportunity — принцип целесообразности

9. the principle of legality — принцип законности

10. to sustain — поддерживать, обеспечивать основания

11. to institute — инициировать, начинать

12. to commence — начинать, возбуждать (дело)

13. to withdraw charges — снимать обвинения

14. to overrule — пересматривать, отменять

A. Independence of prosecutorial decision-making is recognised as being necessary as prosecutors play an important role and functions in relation to the executive branch. An independent prosecution service helps ensure that the Government and the administration are held to account for their actions. In order to fulfil this role and ensure the completely free and unfettered exercise of its independent prosecutorial judgement, a prosecution service cannot be party to inappropriate connections with other branches of government, as that can lead to the prosecution service being subject to inappropriate influences from those other branches. Prosecutorial independence thus serves as the guarantee of impartiality, which in turn leads to a transparent and robust prosecution service with strong ethics and integrity based on the rule of law. This independence must also be maintained in the face of inappropriate pressure that may arise from the media and individuals or interest groups in the community or even the public as a whole. When described in this manner, prosecutorial independence can be viewed as a fundamental component of the administration of justice.

Prosecutorial decisions regarding criminal cases should be made free of outside influences, particularly, but not exclusively, political influence, in situations and legal systems where prosecutors may exercise discretion over the decision to prosecute.

B. The decision to prosecute is one of the core responsibilities granted to a prosecutor and is generally exercised by using two different methodologies: the principle of opportunity and the principle of legality. It is important to emphasise the link between the application of discretion and the independence of prosecutorial decision-making. In States where the principle of legality applies, the prosecutor is in principle required to prosecute every case where there is sufficient evidence to sustain a prosecution. This principle exists mostly in States using the civil law legal tradition; all common law jurisdictions, as well as some civil law jurisdictions such as France and the Netherlands, operate on the basis of the opportunity principle. In States where the principle of opportunity is utilised, prosecutors may exercise discretion with respect to whether or not to institute criminal proceedings or, when proceedings have been commenced, to decide whether to withdraw specific charges or the entire proceedings. This discretion can potentially lead to abuse. A further mechanism to minimise the risk of abuse, used in States operating on the basis of the opportunity principle, is to provide for an internal review mechanism or an appeal to a court by the victim of a crime in the case of a decision not to prosecute.

C. Prosecutorial independence refers to individuals as well as institutions. On the one hand, it enables an individual prosecutor to make decisions rationally and impartially on the basis of the law and the evidence, without external pressure or influence and without fear of interference. On the other hand, prosecutorial independence means that protecting the prosecution of a case from political influence or other interference must be assured by the authority and independence of the prosecution service must be guaranteed by government.

In some States, every individual prosecutor has individual independence in the same way as a judge has. Such, for example, is the case in Italy. Other prosecution services are organised according to a hierarchical principle: while the individual prosecutor must make decisions in an independent manner, some decisions may be overruled or may be subject to confirmation by a more senior prosecutor. In hierarchical systems, the precise scope of any power to overrule or modify the decisions of a more junior prosecutor should be clearly established in legislation, regulations or protocols.

States have found different solutions to protect the independence of the prosecution service in its operations and in its relationship with the executive branch.

3. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations.

a. prosecutorial decision-making

b. to ensure the free and unfettered exercise of independent prosecutorial judgement

c. to be subject to inappropriate influence

d. a transparent and robust prosecution service

e. to exercise discretion over the decision to prosecute

f. sufficient evidence to sustain a prosecution

g. to withdraw charges or the entire proceedings

h. to enable a prosecutor to make a decision

i. without fear of interference

4. Find English equivalents to the following words and word combinations in the text.

a. играть роль

b. служить гарантом беспристрастности

c. профессиональная этика и добросовестность

d. основной элемент отправления правосудия

e. возлагать обязанность

f. инициировать уголовное судопроизводство

g. привести к злоупотреблению должностными полномочиями

h. в соответствии с иерархическим принципом

i. полномочия отменять решения

5. Match words on the left with their synonyms on the right.

1. to institute | a. unimpeded
2. to overrule | b. honesty
3. impartial | c. choice
4. unfettered | d. to commence
5. integrity | e. basis
6. charges | f. to misuse
7. to abuse | g. to overturn
8. discretion | h. to support
9. principle | i. not biased
10. to sustain | j. accusations

6. Work in pairs or in small groups. Make up as many collocations with the following words as possible. Use the dictionary if necessary.

abuse | principle | charges | power | decision

7. Answer the questions.

1. What does the independence of prosecution service ensure?

2. What are the conditions for prosecutors to exercise their independent judgement?

3. What principles may prosecutors use in making their decisions to prosecute?

4. What does the principle of legality imply?

5. What does the principle of opportunity stand for? What risks does the application of this principle bear? How can those risks be minimised?

6. How is the prosecutorial independence protected in some countries?

8. Read and translate the text.

Text 2

STATUS OF THE PROSECUTION SERVICES IN DIFFERENT JURISDICTIONS

Vocabulary

1. to be answerable to – быть подотчетным, отвечать перед

2. sound — разумный

3. stand-alone — отдельный, самостоятельный

4. the Prosecution of Offences Act — Акт об уголовном преследовании за совершение правонарушений

5. the Crown Prosecution Service — Королевская служба обвинителей Англии и Уэльса

6. the Serious Fraud Office — Служба по борьбе с финансовыми махинациями в особо крупном размере

7. to articulate — предписывать, определять

8. to enshrine — закреплять

Some prosecution services form part of the executive branch of a State’s government where chief prosecutors are, for example, answerable to Ministers of Government. For the proper exercise of the prosecution function, it is essential that the scope of the prosecutor’s accountability is clearly set out in legislation and exercised lawfully in a transparent way in accordance with international instruments, national legislation and sound ethical practice.

Other prosecution services, while remaining part of the executive branch of government, have also been developed as stand-alone entities in order to further guarantee their independence. In Ireland, for example, the Prosecution of Offences Act, 1974, established the office of Director of Public Prosecutions as an independent office within the executive branch. The Attorney General has a power to hold a consultation on matters concerning the Director’s function but has no power to give a direction or an instruction. In England and Wales, for example, further to the creation of the Crown Prosecution Service in 1986, the relationship between the Attorney General and the directors of prosecution offices (the Crown Prosecution Service and the Serious Fraud Office) were further defined in a protocol. That protocol articulates the extent of prosecutorial independence and sets out that “the Attorney General is responsible for safeguarding the independence of prosecutors in taking prosecution decisions”.

This trend is also observed in recent reforms where completely independent prosecution services have been created (for example, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Kenya and Northern Ireland).

In some civil law countries (for example, France, Italy and Tunisia), prosecutors belong to the judiciary. Prosecutors are not themselves trial judges, but their judicial status enables them to benefit from the regulatory measures protecting the independence of judges.

In some legal systems, the fundamental basis of the prosecutor’s status is enshrined in the constitution. Prosecution services are either created by the constitution of the country where they operate, or they have a constitutional or legislative mandate and protection to operate independently. As a result, the status and function of prosecution services created in this manner cannot be changed without seeking a constitutional amendment requiring significant political consensus or at least legislative amendment. Constitutional and legislative provisions may also contain some basic principles protecting prosecutors from undue influence.

9. Read the definitions given below and find the word they stand for in the text.

1. Not harmful or wrong; showing or based on good judgement.

2. Wrongful or criminal deception intended to result in financial or personal gain.

3. To preserve (a right, tradition, or idea) in a form that ensures it will be protected and respected.

4. An official order or commission to do something.

5. The fact or condition of being responsible for what you do.

6. Relative social or professional position; standing.

7. The territory or sphere of activity over which the legal authority of a court or other institution extends.

10. Read abstracts from the UN Guidelines and IAP Standards on the role of prosecutors and fill in the gaps with the words and phrases from the box.

penal | to perform their functions | rules or regulations
institution | abuse of State power | improper
brought | essential | any outside pressure
to safeguard | waiver of prosecution | instructions
the interests of justice | transparent | prosecutorial discretion
vested | sufficient | political interference

Norms and standards of the Guidelines on the Role of Prosecutors

• States shall ensure that prosecutors are able ___1___ without intimidation, hindrance, harassment, ___2___ interference or unjustified exposure to civil, ___3___ or other liability.

• In countries where prosecutors are ___4___ with discretionary functions, the law or published ___5___ shall provide guidelines to enhance fairness and consistency of approach in taking decisions in the prosecution process, including ___6___ or ___7____.

IAP Standards of Professional Responsibility and Statement of the Essential Duties and Rights of Prosecutors

• Independence

• The use of ___8____, when permitted in a particular jurisdiction, should be exercised independently and be free from ____9____.

• If non-prosecutorial authorities have the right to give general or specific ✓ ___10___ to prosecutors, such instructions should be:

✓ ___11___;

✓ consistent with lawful authority;

✓ subject to established guidelines ___12___ the actuality and the perception of prosecutorial independence.

• Any right of non-prosecutorial authorities to direct the institution of proceedings or to stop legally instituted proceedings should be exercised in similar fashion. “It is ___13___ that prosecutors have ___14___ independence or autonomy to take their decisions regardless of ___15___, in particular from the executive power of the State. Where such pressures can be and are ___16___ the prosecutor will not be able to protect ___17___, will not be able to respect the rule of law or human rights, and will be powerless to deal effectively with cases of corruption or ___18___”.

(Source: Speech of the President of the International Association of Prosecutors, James Hamilton, at the opening ceremony of the 18th Annual Conference of the International Association of Prosecutors, on the theme “The prosecutor and the rule of law”, held in Moscow from 8 to 12 September 2013).

11. Read and translate the text.

Text 3

PRINCIPLE OF ACCOUNTABILITY

Vocabulary

1. a respondent — ответчик (обычно по апелляции)

2. financial and auditing services — финансово-ревизионная служба

3. expenditure — бюджет, расходы

4. insofar as – в такой степени/мере

5. scrutiny — тщательная проверка

6. to take issue with — быть несогласным

7. extraneous — внешний

8. to enhance — усиливать, укреплять

The independence of the prosecutor does not mean that a prosecutor is completely autonomous and accountable to no one. Prosecution services are accountable to the executive and legislative branches of government, to the public and to an extent the judiciary. “Accountability” of the prosecutor means that a prosecution service may be required to account for its actions either by filing reports, responding to inquiries or, in some situations, acting as a respondent in a court hearing. Accountability may also mean that a prosecution service can potentially be held liable as a result of inefficiencies and abuses of its authority. Individual prosecutors are also accountable for their decisions and actions, through the courts, the hierarchies of their prosecution services, their professional associations and the media and public interest in their professional conduct.

Accountability to the executive and legislative branches of the government

First, a prosecution service may be required to report on its activities or on specific issues to the executive branch and to the Parliament. The Ministry of Justice, the legislative branch and financial and auditing services of government can be kept informed of the activities and expenditures of a prosecution service in a variety of ways.

Accountability to courts

Prosecutors are accountable to courts insofar as their actions are always under scrutiny by the courts and in some cases can be reviewed by the courts. Examples of accountability include the undertaking of a review of a prosecutor’s decision not to prosecute a particular individual where citizens took issue with that decision and the court wished to satisfy the public and make sure that such a decision was based on the law and on no other extraneous factors.

Accountability to the public

Owing to the nature of their work, the prosecution service engages with members of the public on a regular basis. As a major component of the administration of justice in their communities, the public expects prosecutors to perform their duties efficiently, competently, fairly and impartially. Prosecution services are accountable to the public they serve and as such they should be in a position to inform and explain actions they have taken in the administration of justice. As previously mentioned, in some jurisdictions the annual report that the prosecution service submits to the legislature is also made available to the general public at the same time or at a later date. That allows the public to see what activities the prosecution service has engaged in over the previous year, thus enhancing transparency and accountability. The publication of prosecution guidelines and rules of conduct also facilitates public scrutiny of the prosecution service by providing information on the roles and responsibilities of prosecutors and the prosecution service.

12. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations.

a. to act as a respondent

b. to be held liable

c. inefficiencies and abuses

d. to be under scrutiny by the courts

e. to engage with members of the public

f. to submit reports to the legislature

g. to enhance transparency and accountability

13. Find English equivalents to the following words and word combinations in the text.

a. быть подотчетным

b. общественность

c. финансово-ревизионная служба

d. расходы

e. не согласиться с решением прокуратуры

f. внешние факторы

g. исполнять обязанности эффективно, профессионально, честно и беспристрастно

14. Look at the following collocations with the word “account” and its derivatives. Check their meaning in the dictionary if necessary. Fill in the gaps with suitable collocations. Make your own sentences with the following word combinations.

1. The council that represents them is funded by the public to serve the public — and must be ____________ the public.

2. Members expressed their concerns on a number of issues, particularly with regard to ____________.

3. It is about finding justice for an innocent victim and ____________ people ____________ their actions.

4. The people who wrongly sent her to jail should be ____________.

5. The work of the prosecution service must reach the highest ____________, transparency and impact.

6. The defendant refused ____________ 21 similar offences.

7. The source cites ____________ of the severe physical abuse the prisoners suffered whilst in detention there.

8. This is just ____________ of the actions being undertaken by the Crown Prosecution Service.

9. This acts as ____________ and aids transparency.

10. If the defendant wrongly ____________ that financial interest ____________, rather than reaching the decision on legitimate planning grounds, then the decision can be challenged on ordinary judicial review grounds.

11. We must review our defence needs and ____________ our police ____________ the public they serve.

12. Improper relations with governmental officials may dilute ____________ and personal responsibility of the prosecutors.

13. Corruption, which is also brought about by ____________ and proper functioning of a State, can become rampant.

14. The Attorney General must ____________ the President ____________measures taken to combat crime and corruption.

15. Answer the questions.

1. What does the concept of prosecutorial independence comprise?

2. What does the accountability of prosecutors mean?

3. What branches of power is a prosecution service accountable to?

4. How can the government scrutinise the activity of a prosecution service?

5. In what cases can the courts review the decisions of prosecutors?

6. Why shall prosecutors be accountable to the public? How do they usually provide reports?

16. Translate the following sentences into Russian.

1. Prosecutors are answerable to the citizens for their actions.

2. Prosecutors must act independently and impartially and uphold the rule of law.

3. States must ensure that the conduct and functioning of prosecutors in military courts comply with international norms and standards.

4. In order to ensure that prosecutors are able to carry out their professional responsibilities independently, prosecutors should be protected against arbitrary actions by governments.

5. In general, the prosecutors should be entitled to relief from compliance with an unlawful order or an order which is contrary to professional standards or ethics.

6. Instructions to prosecutors from outside sources are particularly sensitive, as they can potentially give rise to actual or perceived abuse and improper influence.

7. States shall ensure that recruitment and promotion are based on objective factors, and in particular professional qualifications, ability, integrity, performance and experience, and decided upon in accordance with fair and impartial procedures.

8. As with every aspect of a criminal justice system, the integrity and accountability of prosecutors and judges must be ensured, and their independence and impartiality must be protected.

9. The public interaction must be encouraged and institutionalised to enhance transparency and accountability of prosecution services.

10. Prosecutors can apply some discretion (principle of opportunity) as to whether to initiate a prosecution or not, which allows for alternative non-conviction-based remedies and also avoids huge backlogs of cases.

17. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Несмотря на тесную связь с органами исполнительной власти, прокуратура должна исполнять свои обязанности независимо от политического влияния и беспристрастно.

2. Главными характеристиками независимой прокуратуры являются профессиональная добросовестность, следование этическим нормам и принципу верховенства закона.

3. Решение прокурора о возбуждении уголовного дела или снятии обвинений и прекращении процесса может основываться на двух принципах: целесообразности и законности.

4. Независимость действий прокуратуры должна обеспечиваться и гарантироваться государством.

5. Независимая деятельность прокуратуры подразумевает прозрачность действий и подотчетность исполнительной и законодательной власти, судам и общественности.

6. В некоторых правовых системах статус и основные функции прокуратуры закреплены в конституции.

7. Государство должно гарантировать, что прокурорская деятельность может осуществляться без принуждения, препятствования, политического вмешательства, притеснения и неоправданного привлечения к гражданской, уголовной и административной ответственности.

8. Подотчетность прокуратуры включает в себя предоставление ежегодных отчетов о своей деятельности законодательной власти, ответы на запросы СМИ и общественности и в некоторых случаях участие в судебных слушаниях в качестве ответчика.

9. Прокурорская деятельность тщательно проверяется судами, особенно в случаях прекращения дел, вызвавших широкий общественный резонанс.

10. Суд должен убедиться, что решение о снятии обвинений было принято на законных основаниях и без влияния внешних факторов.

18. Self-study. Think over the following questions. Consult the Federal legislation and other legal sources if necessary. Discuss the answers with your partners.

a. How is the principle of prosecutorial independence applied in the Russian Federation? What principle (of legality or opportunity) is the decision to prosecute based on?

b. What branches of power is the Prosecution Service of the Russian Federation answerable to? In what manner does it report? How does it provide account to the general public?

Unit 4. General Duties and Rights of Prosecutors

Lead-in

1. Read an abstract from IAP Standards of Professional Responsibility and Statement of the Essential Duties and Rights of Prosecutors Professional conduct. Complete the sentences with the phrases from the box.

relevant legal developments | the rules and ethics
an accused person’s right to a fair trial | serve and protect
the honour and dignity | consistent, independent and impartial
fear, favour or prejudice | respect, protect and uphold
the guilt or the innocence of the suspect | carry out their functions
the highest standards of | to do justice between the community, the victim and the accused
only to the public interest | or disadvantage of the suspect

The role and status of a prosecutor not only places duties on those performing that role in the office or in court. It extends to other professional capacities and to their lives outside the office.

Prosecutors shall

a. at all times maintain _____1_____ their profession;

b. always conduct themselves professionally, in accordance with the law and _____2_____ of their profession;

c. at all times exercise _____3_____ integrity and care;

d. keep themselves well-informed and abreast of _____4_____;

e. strive to be, and to be seen to be, _____5_____;

f. always protect _____6_____, and in particular ensure that evidence favourable to the accused is disclosed in accordance with the law or the requirements of a fair trial;

g. always _____7_____ the public interest;

h. _____8_____ the universal concept of human dignity and human rights.

Impartiality. Prosecutors shall perform their duties without _____9_____. In particular they shall

a. _____10_____ impartially;

b. remain unaffected by individual or sectional interests and public or media pressures and shall have regard _____11_____;

c. act with objectivity;

d. have regard to all relevant circumstances, irrespective of whether they are to the advantage or _____12_____;

e. in accordance with local law or the requirements of a fair trial, seek to ensure that all necessary and reasonable enquiries are made and the result disclosed, whether that points towards _____13_____;

f. always search for the truth and assist the court to arrive at the truth and _____14_____ according to law and the dictates of fairness.

2. Find the ethical code of prosecutors of the RF. Make a comparative analysis of its provisions with the IAP Standards and discuss it with your partners.

3. Read and translate the text.

Text 1

DUTIES RELATED TO PROFESSIONAL LIFE

Vocabulary

1. to take direction from — руководствоваться

2. to resort to – обращаться к 3. to curry favour — добиваться поддержки

4. to abstain from — воздерживаться от чего-либо

5. an affiliation — связь, принадлежность

6. to discharge the duties with — выполнять обязательства перед

7. professional confidentiality — профессиональная тайна

8. to further interests — действовать в интересах

9. detachment from — независимость от

10. undue — незаконный, ненадлежащий

11. to recuse oneself — брать самоотвод

12. to withdraw from — отказаться от участия

A prosecutor should always take direction from the law and should always resort to the law when making decisions such as whether to proceed with a case or not. Other considerations, such as whether bringing a prosecution will enhance the prosecutor’s employment prospects, curry favour with any political group or result in any particular media or community reaction, should be avoided and constantly guarded against.

Prosecutors must also abstain in all conduct from unfair discrimination on the basis of sex, ethnic or national origin, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, social origin or class, social or political affiliation, lawful activities, beliefs, property, birth, health, disability or any other personal characteristic of any individual concerned or the personal feelings or beliefs of the prosecutor.

The pressures and stress of the courtroom should not diminish basic standards of professional conduct. Prosecutors should discharge their duties with the courts, the police and other public authorities, as well as with other members of the profession, with respect and courtesy.

Much of what is gathered during a criminal investigation is of a sensitive nature involving the most intimate details of a person’s life, and all of that information will end up in the prosecution file. Prosecutors should preserve professional confidentiality, subject to disclosure requirements in accordance with proper professional practice and should not use any information to which they have had access during the course of their employment to unjustifiably further their own private interests or those of others.

In all States, prosecutors act to represent a party to criminal proceedings (the people, the State or the Crown) before the judiciary. As a result of this interaction, it is essential that prosecutors maintain and demonstrate a professional detachment from the judiciary and other legal professionals in their daily activities.

Socialising among all parts of the criminal justice system and all branches of the legal profession is expected and appropriate, but any situation that might give rise to the real or reasonable perception of undue closeness to any judicial officer must be avoided. For example, a prosecutor who sees a judge regularly on a social basis in a small social group setting should consider whether the public might assume the prosecutor and judge discuss their cases in such settings. Prosecutors need to consider whether the public can be confident that the close relationship does not have any impact on the judge’s rulings and whether the public might be more confident in unbiased judicial decisions if the judge recused himself from cases brought by that prosecutor or the prosecutor withdrew from cases assigned to that judge.

4. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations.

a. to bring a prosecution

b. to curry favour with a political group

c. to enhance employment prospects

d. to diminish basic standards of professional conduct

e. the prosecution file

f. to maintain a professional detachment from the judiciary

g. undue closeness to a judicial officer

h. to withdraw from cases assigned to the judge

5. Find English equivalents to the following words and word combinations in the text.

a. руководствоваться законом

b. воздерживаться от дискриминации

c. выполнять обязательства перед судом и полицией

d. сохранять профессиональную тайну

e. действовать в собственных интересах

f. поддерживать связи со всеми участниками системы уголовного правосудия

g. оказывать влияние на решение судьи

h. взять самоотвод

6. Match the words and word combinations on the left with their definitions on the right.

1. discrimination | a. the state of being objective or aloof
2. to discharge duties with | b. to help the progress or development of (something); to promote
3. to abstain from | c. to do all that is required to perform (a duty) or fulfil (a responsibility)
4. to resort to | d. to participate in social activities; to mix socially with others.
5. detachment | e. the action of making new or secret information known
6. undue | f. to excuse oneself from a case because of a potential conflict of interest or lack of impartiality
7. to recuse oneself from | g. the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex
8. to further | h. unwarranted or inappropriate because of being excessive or disproportionate
9. to socialise | i. to turn to and adopt (a course of action, especially an extreme or undesirable one) so as to resolve a difficult situation
10. disclosure | j. to restrain oneself from doing or enjoying something

7. Answer the questions.

1. What are the professional and ethical duties of prosecutors?

2. What should the prosecutors avoid and guard against in their everyday work?

3. Why should the prosecutors preserve professional confidentiality?

4. Why should prosecutors detach from the judiciary while being a party to criminal proceedings?

5. What does socialising among all parts of the criminal justice system imply?

6. In what situations may a prosecutor withdraw from a case?

8. Read the Text 2 and make a short summary in 3-5 sentences. Ask 2-3 questions that reflect the main idea of this abstract.

Text 2

DUTIES RELATED TO PRIVATE LIFE

Vocabulary

1. within the bounds of – в рамках, в пределах

2. a constraint — ограничение

3. to run for the office — выдвигать кандидатуру на пост

4. to consort with — вращаться в обществе/кругу, сотрудничать с

5. to frequent — часто посещать

6. to bring into disrepute — дискредитировать, вызывать недоверие к

7. digital age — цифровой век, эра цифровых технологий

8. to disseminate — распространять

9. to intrude upon — посягать на

10. an inducement — здесь: подкуп

11. assets — активы

Prosecutors have the right to pursue their private lives as they see fit but must do so within the bounds of the law and within the peculiar constraints of their profession. The independence that is so important to prosecutors in effectively performing their duties places some limits on activities that may compromise the independence of their office: activities such as outside employment that could lead to a conflict of interests, running for political office while still employed as a prosecutor, consorting with known criminals or frequenting venues where criminals may be found or engaging in activities that may bring the office of the prosecutor into disrepute are considerations that prosecution services may need to address with their staff. This is perhaps the case now more than ever as the digital age has allowed anyone practically anywhere to take photographs or video recordings and disseminate them worldwide with the press of a button. This has the potential to intrude upon every person’s private life, including prosecutors.

In addition, prosecutors should not allow their personal or financial interests or family, social or other relationships to improperly influence their conduct. A prosecutor should not play any part in a case in which the prosecutor or the prosecutor’s family or business associates have a personal, private or financial interest or association. It is unacceptable behaviour for a prosecutor to accept any gifts, prizes, benefits, inducements or hospitality from third parties or carry out any task that may be seen to compromise the prosecutor’s integrity, fairness and impartiality, as is using the official capacity of the prosecutor’s office to obtain a personal advantage. In some states prosecutors are required to declare their assets and all sources of income to their employer as a method of preventing corruption. This can be a valuable safeguard against corruption as well as tending to draw the individual prosecutor’s attention to any potential conflict of interest. Management should ensure that procedures are in place to guide prosecutors who seek advice concerning possible conflicts of interest.

9. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations.

a. to consort with criminals

b. to compromise the independence of the office

c. to frequent venues

d. to intrude upon every person’s private life

e. to improperly influence the conduct

f. to have a financial interest or association

g. to accept inducement or hospitality

h. prosecutor’s integrity, fairness and impartiality

i. a valuable safeguard against corruption

10. Find English equivalents to the following words and word combinations in the text.

a. в рамках закона

b. профессиональные ограничения

c. выдвигать кандидатуру на пост

d. дискредитировать прокурора

e. эра цифровых технологий

f. распространять видео и фотографии по всему миру

g. подавать декларацию о доходах

h. получать личную выгоду

i. конфликт интересов

11. a) Read the definitions of the following terms and learn the difference between them.

Duty — a moral or legal obligation; a task or action that one is required to perform as part of one’s job; a payment levied on the import, export or manufacture.

Responsibility — the state or fact of having a duty to deal with something or of having control over someone; the state or fact of being accountable or to blame for something.

Obligation — an act or course of action to which a person is morally or legally bound (often against their will); a commitment.

b) Fill in the gaps with missing letters in the left column and make collocations with the words in the right column.

c) Translate them and make your own sentences with these collocations.

b_ _ _ch of
c_v_c
to d_ _ch_ _ge
o_ _-
to p_ _f_ _m
to i_p_s_
duty

to t_k_
to cl_ _m
e_h_ _al
f_ _l
d_r_c_
p_r_o_al
responsibility

to be _n_er