Ю. А. Караулова, Е. А. Антюхова

Political Discourse and Translation Strategies

Учебник

ebooks@prospekt.org

Информация о книге

УДК 811.111(075.8)

ББК 81.2Англ-923

К21

Авторы:

Караулова Ю. А., кандидат юридических наук, доцент кафедры английского языка No 6, заместитель декана факультета управления и политики МГИМО МИД России;

Антюхова Е. А., доктор политических наук, доцент кафедры мировых политических процессов, заместитель декана факультета управления и политики МГИМО МИД России.

Рецензенты:

Гаман-Голутвина О. В., доктор политических наук, профессор, член-корреспондент РАН, заведующая кафедрой сравнительной политологии МГИМО МИД России, заместитель председателя Общественного совета при Министерстве науки и высшего образования РФ, президент Российской ассоциации политической науки, председатель Экспертного совета Российского фонда фундаментальных исследований по политологии, философии, социологии, правоведению и науковедению;

Чугунова С. А., доктор филологических наук, профессор кафедры английского языка и переводоведения Брянского государственного университета имени академика И. Г. Петровского.

Учебник “Political Discourse and Translation Strategies” («Политический дискурс и техника перевода») предназначен для студентов магистратуры, обучающихся по направлению «Политология». Основное внимание уделено вопросам перевода текстов политологической направленности с русского языка на английский, а также умению работать с профессионально ориентированными текстами на английском языке. Рассчитан на продвинутое владение английским языком.

В издании использованы фрагменты научно-исследовательских статей, опубликованных в международных изданиях, а также трудов ведущих российских ученых-политологов, работающих на факультете управления и политики МГИМО МИД России. Тематика учебника охватывает разделы актуальной политической мысли, такие как политическая теория, политическая философия, история российской политической мысли, политическая наука в эпоху цифровых трансформаций и формирования нового миропорядка и т. д.

Соответствует требованиям федерального государственного образовательного стандарта высшего образования.

УДК 811.111(075.8)

ББК 81.2Англ-923

© Караулова Ю. А., Антюхова Е. А., 2024

© ООО «Проспект», 2024

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

Данный учебник предназначен для студентов магистратуры, обучающихся по направлению «Политология».

В основе учебника лежит компетентностный подход к изучению иностранного языка для уровней профессионального владения С1–С2. Целью учебника является формирование у обучающихся следующих результатов обучения:

Знания:

• терминологического и лексического материала по предмету «Политология»;

• правил и техник перевода с русского на английский и с английского на русский;

• перевода соответствующих терминов по профессиональной тематике;

• общенаучной и политологической терминологии;

• современного понятийно-категориального аппарата политической науки в его комплексном контексте.

Умения:

• читать и понимать литературу по профессии;

• критически оценивать информацию на английском языке, полученную из печатных, аудиовизуальных и электронных источников в рамках профессиональной, общественно-политической и социально-культурной сфер общения;

• использовать переводческие техники для письменного и устного перевода с листа;

• адекватно использовать соответствующую терминологию в собственных высказываниях, понимать и применять понятийно-категориальный аппарат политической науки при чтении текстов и создании своих высказываний на профессионально ориентированную тематику.

Навыки:

• обобщения и систематизации результатов исследования актуальных политологических проблем;

• грамотного изложения результатов собственных научных исследований по профессионально ориентированной тематике (рефераты, доклады и др.);

• устного и письменного перевода текстов разного объема по профессиональной и общесоциальной тематике;

• ведения дискуссии и выступления с докладами по профессионально ориентированной тематике, подготовки устных выступлений и написания докладов и эссе по профессионально ориентированным вопросам.

В учебнике использованы фрагменты научно-исследовательских статей, опубликованных в международных изданиях, а также статьи, написанные ведущими российскими учеными-политологами и профессорами факультета управления и политики МГИМО МИД России.

В соответствии со статьей 1274 «Свободное использование произведения в информационных, научных, учебных или культурных целях» части четвертой Гражданского кодекса Российской Федерации, авторы учебника приводят в своей работе в качестве аутентичных материалов правомерно использованные произведения и отрывки из них в объеме, оправданном поставленной целью или методикой, с обязательным указанием имени автора, произведение которого используется, и источника заимствования.

Unit 1. POLITICAL SCIENCE: ITS SCOPE AND SUBFIELDS

DOING THEORY

1. Translate into Russian the text below. In the course of translation pay attention to the underlined fragments:

What is Political Science?

Political science focuses on the theory and practice of government and politics at the local, state, national, and international levels. We are dedicated to developing understandings of institutions, practices, and relations that constitute public life and modes of inquiry that promote citizenship.

Some of the major subfields are described below.

https://www.iomcworld.org/medical-journals/open-access-political-science-articles-54155.html

TRANSLATION STRATEGIES

Apply the respective translation patterns to the translation of the underlined fragments in the text above:

Impersonal Pattern (ENGL: Subject + Predicate = RUS: Preposition + NOUN in the oblique case + Reflexive Verb)

e. g.

Political science focuses on = в центре изучения политической науки находится // предметом политологии является;

We are dedicated to = нашей целью является.

Political Theory

Political theory is concerned mainly with the foundations of political community and institutions. It focuses on human nature and the moral purposes of political association. To clarify these concepts, political theorists draw on enduring political writings from ancient Greece to the present and on various writings by moral philosophers. Political theory also focuses on empirical research into the way political institutions function in practice. Here political theorists subject beliefs about political life found in important political writings to re-examination in the light of ongoing human behavior. In either case, political theory seeks to ultimately deepen political thinking and to spur citizens to responsible and creative political action.

https://www.iomcworld.org/medical-journals/open-access-political-science-articles-54155.html

TRANSLATION STRATEGIES

Apply the respective translation patterns to the translation of the underlined fragments in the text above:

Verbal Pattern (ENGL: Infinitive + Noun = RUS: Preposition + Noun)

e. g. To clarify these concepts = для разъяснения сути этих понятий;

Clause Pattern (ENGL: IF/WHEN/WHERE + Clause (Subject + Predicate) = RUS: В случае + Noun + Noun)

e. g.

research into the way political institutions function in practice = исследования способов деятельности политических институтов на практике.

Comparative Politics

Comparative politics is a broad field with a variety of approaches and goals. Some scholars and researchers compare contemporary political systems in order to judge which types best provide particular values: order, equality, freedom, or economic security and well-being for their citizens. Others suggest that the main purpose of comparative politics is to provide an understanding of how and why different societies develop different kinds of political institutions. Still others use comparative politics as a way of discovering general laws and theories that will explain human political behavior and its variability.

Comparative politics courses are of two basic types. One offers comparisons of a particular set of problems or institutions in a number of different countries. The second type offers in-depth analyses of the basic political institutions and processes of a single country or group of countries in a world region.

TRANSLATION STRATEGIES

Apply the respective translation patterns to the translation of the underlined fragments in the text above:

Verbal Pattern (ENGL: Infinitive + Noun = RUS: Noun)

e. g.

the main purpose of comparative politics is to provide an understanding = главной целью сравнительной политологии является обеспечение понимания;

Clause Pattern (ENGL: IF/WHEN/WHERE/HOW/WHY + Clause (Subject + Predicate) = RUS: В случае + Noun + Noun)

e. g.

an understanding of how and why different societies develop different kinds of political institutions = понимание способов и причин формирования различных политических институтов в рамках различных обществ.

International Relations

The field of international relations is concerned with developing an understanding of why states and non-state international actors, like the United Nations and multinational corporations, interact as they do. International relations is a diverse field both in terms of what kinds of behavior are studied and how they are studied. International conflict, particularly war, continues to be an important focus of the field. Why do wars start? Who wins and why? How can wars be prevented? What is the role of international law and organizations? As the world has become more interdependent, scholars have become more aware of the importance of international economic activity. As a result, scholars are analyzing world trade, communications, development, foreign investment, and international finance. How states make foreign policy decisions is another important area of study. National security policy, nuclear deterrence, arms control and defense spending decisions are typical examples of foreign policy decisions.

https://www.polisci.washington.edu/what-political-science

DOING TRANSLATION

2. Translate the following into English, using the tips in parentheses:

1) Политология — это наука о политике, о закономерностях (patterns) возникновения политических явлений (институтов, отношений, процессов), о способах и формах их функционирования и развития, о методах управления политическими процессами, о политической власти, политическом сознании, культуре и т. д.

Clause Pattern (RUS: Noun + Noun = ENGL: Clause (Subject + Predicate))

e. g. о способах и формах их функционирования и развития = the way political phenomena evolve and function

2) В политологии сложились две традиции, одна из которых идет от Аристотеля, другая — от Макиавелли (Political science can be traced back to). Аристотелевская традиция задается вопросом, какой политический режим является соответствующим природе человека, служит его благу. Другая традиция делает акцент на проблемах эффективности политических систем (the Aristotelian tradition is concerned with).

3) Ведущая роль политики в решении проблем современного общества не раз подчеркивалась в работах крупнейших мыслителей. Английский политолог и социолог К. Поппер в своей работе «Открытое общество и его враги» (The Open Society and Its Enemies) обосновал фундаментальный характер современной политологии как науки о политической власти. Он отмечал, что именно политика в современном мире контролирует экономическую мощь, все социальные, культурные и военные программы. «Политическая власть и присущие ей способы контроля, — подчеркивает К. Поппер (Karl Popper), — это самое главное в жизни общества».

4) После Второй мировой войны политическая наука начинает развиваться быстрыми темпами. Основными причинами явились необходимость научно обоснованной разработки технологий мирного урегулирования военных конфликтов, наступление эры холодной войны и вместе с тем понимание глобальной опасности неразрешенных противоречий между государствами.

5) На Международном коллоквиуме в Париже была предпринята попытка (The International colloquium held in Paris attempted to) определения основных элементов политической науки. Были выделены четыре блока этих элементов:

(1) политическая теория (теория политики и история политических идей);

(2) публичные (государственные) институты, их структура и функционирование (конституция, центральное управление, региональное и местное самоуправление);

(3) политической участие и давление граждан (партии, движения, участие граждан в управлении и администрации, общественное мнение);

(4) система международных отношений (деятельность международных организаций, тенденции мировой политики, система международного права).

http://testent.ru/publ/studenty/politologija

3. Translate the following into Russian:

Political Science: History of Evolvement

1) The Greek philosopher Aristotle was perhaps the first scholar to think systematically about how different forms of government led to different political outcomes: such as stability or rebellion in the city states in Ancient Greece. In fact, if science is the systematic building and organisation of knowledge with the aim of understanding and explaining how the world works, then Aristotle was probably the first ‘political scientist’.

Clause Pattern (ENGL: Clause (Subject + Predicate) = RUS: Noun + Noun)

e. g. explaining how the world works = объяснение механизмов существования мира

2) The first modern political scientists in the first few decades of the twentieth century included, among others, Max Weber in Germany, Robert Michels in Italy, Lord Bryce in Britain, and Woodrow Wilson in the USA. These scholars, and most of their contemporaries, thought of themselves primarily as sociologists, historians, lawyers, or scholars of public administration. But what they sought to understand and explain, among other things, was politics, and one aspect of politics in particular: political institutions.

3) After this early focus on describing and explaining political institutions, in the mid-twentieth century political science shifted its focus to ‘political behaviour’. There were several reasons for this change. Faith in the power of political institutions was challenged by the collapse of democracy in much of Europe in the 1920s and 1930s. The Weimar Republic, in Germany, was a supposedly ideal democratic constitution, so many contemporary scholars thought. To understand the collapse of Weimar, and the rise of Fascism and Communism, it was clear that the attitudes and behaviour of citizens and elites were perhaps more important than the institutions of government.

4) Political scientists also developed some new methods to study political behaviour. One such method was the ‘representative opinion poll’. Until the 1930s, elections were usually predicted by newspapers or magazines who polled the opinions of their readers. For example, just before the 1936 Presidential election in the USA, the Literary Digest surveyed its 2.3 million readers, and confidently predicted that Alf Landon would defeat Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Infinitive Pattern (ENG: Infinitive + Noun = RUS: (Preposition +) Noun)

e. g. methods to study political behavior = методы изучения политического поведения

5) The problem with this prediction was that the readers of the Literary Digest were mostly from higher income groups and hence were more likely to support the Republican candidate (Landon) than the average US citizen in the midst of the Great Depression. At the same time, George Gallup conducted a smaller survey among a representative sample of US citizens, based on various demographic characteristics, such as income, age and gender. Using this method, Gallup correctly predicted a landslide for Roosevelt. Gallup became famous, as the pioneer of opinion polls.

6) However, for most of the second half of the twentieth century the discipline of political science remained divided between a variety of different theoretical and methodological approaches, which operated largely in isolation from each other. For example, one group of scholars adapted some of the new theoretical ideas about actors’ behaviour in economics to try to explain the behaviour of voters, parties, interest groups, legislators or bureaucrats. Since these scholars assumed that these political actors were driven by self-interest and strategic calculations, this approach became known as the ‘rational choice approach’ in political science.

7) Another group of scholars adapted some of the new theoretical ideas in sociology about the social and cultural determinants of behaviour to try to explain the formation of states, the behaviour and organization of political parties, how citizens voted, and why some countries became stable democracies while others did not. Some of the leading scholars in this more sociological approach to behaviour were Seymour Martin Lipset, Gabriel Almond, Philip Converse, Stein Rokkan, Samuel Huntington and Arend Lijphart.

8) For much of this period these two approaches to political science largely ignored each other, even when they researched and wrote about similar topics! But, in the 1980s and early 1990s these two schools of thought started to communicate more with each other. So, from different starting points, political scientists began to focus again on the role of political institutions, under the rubric of what became known as ‘new institutionalism’.

9) There are many different theoretical approaches and ideas in modern political science. Two such explanations are the rational choice approach and the institutional approach. Whereas the rational choice approach emphasises the importance of political actors and how they behave, the institutional approach emphasises the importance of societal and political institutions in determining political behaviour and political outcomes.

Taken from S. Hix and M. Whiting “Introduction to political science”

The London School of Economics and Political Science

4. Translate the following into English:

1) Создание первых политических категорий и дефиниций способствовало возникновению собственно теоретических концепций политики, связанных прежде всего с творчеством Платона и Аристотеля.

2) Макс Вебер (Max Weber) является создателем понимающей социологии и теории социального действия (understanding sociology and the theory of human social action). Наименование «понимающая социология» и «теория социального действия» учение Вебера получило в связи с тем, что в его основе лежало сосредоточение внимания социолога на выявлении смысла действия людей, их поведения.

3) В работах Вильфредо Парето и Гаэтано Моска (Vilfredo Pareto and Gaetano Mosca) были поставлены проблемы теории элит, структуры политической власти и группового характера ее реализации.

4) На Западе длительное время господствующим направлением в политологии был политический бихевиоризм (Behavioralizm). Д. Истон выделил его основные принципы, а такие ученые как Г. Лассуэлл, Ч. Мерриам, Е. А. Росс, Г. Уоллес, А. Бентли (David Easton, Merriam, Lasswell, Bentley, Wallace) внесли важный вклад (contributed greatly to) в развитие бихевиористского направления в политологии.

https://all-politologija.ru/knigi/politologiya-uchebnoe-posobie/istoriya-politicheskoj-mysli-xx-veka

5) В университетах Западной Европы параллельно сосуществуют два академических направления исследования политики, составляющих политическое знание: политическая философия (нормативная политическая теория) и политическая наука (эмпирическая политическая теория).

6) Определяющей тенденцией развития политической науки, в первую очередь в США и Великобритании в первой половине XX в., был анализ конкретных мотиваций индивида, побудивших его к определенному поведению и принятию решений. Живой интерес к данной проблеме был вызван экономическими, социальными и политическими потрясениями, которые про изошли в западных странах в 20–30-х гг. XX в., что стало основанием для возникновения поведенческого (бихевиористского) направления в политической теории.

7) В качестве исходного основания анализа политики в бихевиоризме выступает политическое поведение, обусловленное побуждающими мотивами.

8) Однако в отличие от просветителей XVIII в. бихевиористы отказались от моральной оценки политических проблем, рассматривая их исключительно как естественные. Политическая реальность является частью естественного, природного порядка, и потому политические процессы протекают в неизменных формах, которые обусловлены неизменной природой индивида.

9) Либеральная теория демократии основывается на англосаксонской традиции, рассматривает демократию как ответственное и компетентное правление.

10) Понятие «модерн» (modernity) в политической теории отличается большим разнообразием толкований. Наиболее основательную интерпретацию эпохи модерна дает английский социолог и политолог Э. Гидденс (AnthonyGiddens) (1938), осмысливающий развитие общества в контексте влияния глобальных факторов, изменяющих тип социальных отношений, способы взаимодействия индивидов и т. д.

11) Существенный вклад в понимание особенностей современного социального пространства (social space) внес выдающийся французский философ и социолог П. Бурдье (Pierre Bourdieu) (1930–2002). Центральные идеи его творческой концепции — социальное пространство и поле, культурный и социальный капитал, габитус (cultural and social capital, habitus).

Алексеева Т. А. Современные политические теории. Опыт Запада

5. Speak on the following issues using the Unit vocabulary and concepts:

What is political science?

Describe the existing subfields of political science;

Describe the evolution of political studies as a discipline.

Unit 2. BASIC CONCEPTS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

DOING THEORY

1. Translate the following basic concepts of political science:

A.

Political science focuses on the theory and practice of government and politics at the local, state, national, and international levels. We are dedicated to developing understandings of institutions, practices, and relations that constitute public life and modes of inquiry that promote citizenship.

Political philosophy is the field of political knowledge, since the cognizing subject is located as if «inside politics», i. e. in the political domain. Whereas иolitical science is associated with a specific society and a specific period of time, political philosophy goes beyond the spatial limits and temporal framework of today’s generation, encompassing much longer historical experience and qualitatively different traditions of thinking.

Political ideology is knowledge that offers a purportedly undeniable model of good life and proclaims the necessity to use certain tools in order to achieve this goal through appealing to the social needs of people. Ideology is illusory and only simulates true knowledge, since it is incapable of doubting the basis of its knowledge. It takes knowledge «on faith». That is why there is a fundamental dividing line between political philosophy and ideology. An ideology concentrates around a certain core of values (freedom, equality, justice), which are interpreted differently in different ideologies.

Political theory focuses on specific manifestations of the political world, such as structure and functions, institutions and actors, their behavior, roles and relationships, the forms and types of political systems etc. Political theory is primarily interested in the interpretation of texts; it seeks to ascertain what a particular thinker said about a certain matter, how he legitimized his approach with arguments and in which intellectual context he wrote. Political theory seeks to justify its statements, whereas ideology takes them for granted.

A scientific picture of the world is a set of scientific theories, which describe, in aggregate, the world known to the humans, or, in other words, an integral system of ideas regarding the general principles and laws of the universe. A scientific picture of the world is a quintessence of scientific knowledge at a certain historical stage of its evolution and, as such, it is embraced by the social consciousness of the relevant epoch.

B.

Политика — средства (силовые, экономические, информационные и др.), с помощью которых власть оказывает влияние (to affect) на сущность и содержание правительственной деятельности. Сфера политики включает действия не только тех, кто осуществляет непосредственное правление, но и многих других социальных групп (strata).

Власть — способность и возможность (the ability) осуществлять свою волю, оказывать определяющее воздействие на деятельность, поведение людей с помощью какого-либо средства — авторитета, права, насилия. Политическая власть — это реальная способность данного класса, группы, индивида проводить свою волю (to exercise one’s will) в политике и правовых нормах.

Политическая система — это искусственно созданный, теоретический, мыслительный конструкт, инструмент, позволяющий выявлять и описывать системные свойства различных политических явлений. Эта категория отражает не саму политическую реальность, а является средством системного анализа политики.

Политическая культура понимается как часть политической системы общества, представленной в знаниях, мнениях, позициях, чувствах и оценках людей.

Политическое сознание — это система знаний, идей, ценностей индивида, группы, общества. Политическое сознание можно также определить как отражение в сознании людей политических реальностей. Политическое сознание зависит от условий жизни личности, социальной группы, нации.

Алексеева Татьяна Александровна,
Заведующий кафедрой политической теории МГИМО
МИД России, доктор философских наук, профессор,
заслуженный деятель науки Российской Федерации

2. Based on the definitions above, differentiate (a) political science from political philosophy; (b) political philosophy from ideology.

3. Describe political theory, politics, and power in English.

4. Translate the text below and pay attention to the words and word combinations given in bold.

Political Concepts and Political Theories introduce political theory by focusing on enduring disputes about the nature of freedom, power, equality, justice, democracy, and authority. The first part of the book examines the nature of these disputes. It clarifies what we are disagreeing about when we offer different interpretations of political concepts, and why our disagreements about them are so difficult to resolve. Providing accessible accounts of the views of Plato, Wittgenstein, and recent theorists such as Gallie, Gaus argues that our interpretation of a political concept such as liberty is not freestanding but linked to our understandings of power, equality, justice, democracy, and other values. To understand a particular political concept, Gaus argues, we must place it in a political theory, which constitutes a system of such concepts. Political Concepts and Political Theories present in an accessible way an innovative approach to the analysis of political concepts and the study of political theory. As such, it will be of interest both to those looking at political concepts and political theories for the first time, as well as to scholars who have already examined these issues.

5. Translate the sentences below into English using where necessary the above words and word combinations in bold. Pay attention to the translation tips given below the sentences:

(1) В данной статье раскрывается понятие политической теории путем анализа непрекращающихся дебатов о природе таких понятий, как свобода, власть, равенство и справедливость.

• В данной статье раскрывается понятие = the article introduces the concept;

• путем анализа = by focusing on.

(2) В трудах современного теоретика изучается природа классических политических понятий и научные дебаты о толковании этих понятий.

• В трудах современного теоретика изучается природа = the recent theorist examines the nature of; классические политические понятия = enduring political concepts.

(3) С учетом взглядов современных политологов авторы учебника предлагают инновационный подход к анализу политических понятий и изучению политической теории в целом.

• С учетом взглядов современных политологов = taking account of the views of recent political theorists; предлагают инновационный подход к = present an innovative approach to.

(4) Учебник может представлять интерес как для студентов, изучающих политическую теорию, так и для ученых, занимающихся этой проблематикой.

• Может представлять интерес как для…, так и для = the textbook will be of interest both to.

DOING TRANSLATION

6. Analyze the way the Impersonal Pattern can be used. Apply the pattern to the translation of the sentences below:

Impersonal Pattern (RUS: Preposition + NOUN in the oblique case + Reflexive Verb/Verb = ENGL: Subject + Predicate)

e. g.

(a) в данной статье раскрывается понятие политической теории = the article introduces the concept of political theory;

(b) в трудах современного теоретика изучается природа = the recent theorist examines the nature of;

(c) в качестве общего определения политики можно предложить следующее = Politics can be generally defined as…

7. Translate the following sentences using the Impersonal Pattern:

(1) в статье освещаются вопросы политической теории с учетом мнения современных теоретиков.

(2) в учебнике предлагается инновационный подход к анализу современных тенденций развития политической науки.

(3) в докладе содержится анализ базовых политических понятий.

(4) на конференции состоялась экспертная дискуссия по вопросам цифровой трансформации государственного управления.

(5) в ходе панельной дискуссии были высказаны предложения о внедрении инновационных методов применения искусственного интеллекта в сфере высшего образования.

(6) в рамках обсуждения актуальных проблем политической теории использовались классические труды античных философов.

(7) в научной литературе до сих пор отсутствует единый подход к концептуализации концепта «политика».

(8) в научном сообществе ведутся непрекращающиеся дебаты о применении искусственного интеллекта в общественных науках.

(9) в обзоре литературы использовалась совокупность общенаучных методов.

(10) в аннотации научной статьи содержится описание объекта и предмета исследования.

DOING RESEARCH

8. Read and remember the following:

Academic research generally can be defined as an endeavor to make new discoveries for the scientific community. It involves a thorough investigation into a topic under consideration: searching for information and systemizing it, selecting and evaluating arguments appropriate for particular research, and finally providing your findings.

In academic writing and speaking we use a number of universal terms and categories.

Парадигма — совокупность научных достижений (the aggregate of scientific achievements), признаваемых научным сообществом в тот или иной период времени и служащих основой (constitute the basis) и образцом новых научных исследований. Таким образом, в академическом мире под парадигмой обычно понимается некая группа предположений (assumptions), концептов (concepts), ценностей и практик, предполагающих определенный способ рассмотрения реальности (dealing with reality).

Теория — это только часть целых парадигм. Парадигма может включать несколько теорий, а также различные образы (images) предметной области, определения, методы и образцы.

Методология — тип рационально-рефлексивного сознания (rationally reflecting consciousness), направленный на (aimed at) изучение, совершенствование и конструирование (improving and developing) методов. 1. Учение о научном (theory regarding the scientific method of cognition) методе познания, или шире — о методах познания вообще. 2. Совокупность методов (the aggregate of all methods), применяемых в некоей науке, области знания.

Метод — это путь исследования, познания (a route for research, cognition). Среди методов научно-познавательной деятельности можно различать методы исследования в отдельных дисциплинах (например, в политологии), междисциплинарные методы (системно-структурный метод (system-structural method), общенаучные методы (наблюдение, эксперимент, метод идеализации, метод гипотезы [observation, experiment, the method of idealization, the method of a hypothesis] и т. д.).

Объект политологического исследования — аспект социально-политической реальности, явления или процессы в политике, которые мы собираемся изучать.

Предмет исследования — вопрос, на который вы будете искать ответ. Иначе говоря, что именно мы хотим узнать про изучаемый ответ? Обычно для объекта выбирается более «широкая» характеристика, а для предмета «узкая».

9. Fill in the charts below:

UNIT VOCABULARY

A.

ENGLISH | RUSSIAN
COLLOCATIONS
Government and politics |
Cognizing subject |
In the political domain |
Scientific picture of the world |
Scientific knowledge |
In aggregate |
Social consciousness |
Enduring disputes about |
Accounts of the views |
An innovative approach to |
To be of interest to |
Recent theorists |
A thorough investigation into a topic |
VERBS
To focus on |
To be dedicated to |
To constitute |
To be associated with |
To encompass |
To go beyond the limits of |
To examine |
To search for information |
To evaluate and select arguments |

B.

RUSSIAN | ENGLISH
SCIENTIFIC TERMS
Парадигма |
Методология |
Метод познания |
Междисциплинарный метод |
Системно-структурный метод |
Общенаучный метод |
Метод гипотезы |
Трансцендентальный метод |
Диалектический метод |
Феноменологический метод |
Совокупность методов |
Объект исследования |
Предмет исследования |

10. Speak on the following issues:

Basic concepts in political studies;

Research methods in political studies;

What is the difference between an object and a subject in a research study?

BUILDING UP A RESEARCH ARTICLE IN ENGLISH

A research article is an article in which the authors report on the research they did.

11. Study the following structure of a research article:

General Structure of a Research Article

Title A good title should contain the fewest possible words that adequately describe the content of a paper.

Effective titles:

• identify the main issue of the paper

• begin with the subject of the paper

• are accurate, unambiguous, specific, and complete

• are as short as possible

• do not contain rarely-used abbreviations

Articles with short, catchy titles are often better cited

Abstract

This is the advertisement of your article stating what has been done and what are the main findings.

Keywords

These are the labels of your manuscript; use only established abbreviations.

Main Text (introduction, methods, results, discussions)

This is the main body of an article, which provides logical reasoning of conducted research, key arguments, methods of research and results or findings.

Conclusions and references

This is the conclusions made by the author and plans and recommendations for further studies.

12. Read, translate and memorize the following instruction to a proper academic style title prepared by the University of Southern California:

The following parameters can be used to help you formulate a suitable research paper title:

• The purpose of the research

• The scope of the research

• The narrative tone of the paper [typically defined by the type of the research]

• The methods used to study the problem

The initial aim of a title is to capture the reader’s attention and to highlight the research problem under investigation.

Create a Working Title

Typically, the final title you submit to your professor is created after the research is complete so that the title accurately captures what has been done. The working title should be developed early in the research process because it can help anchor the focus of the study in much the same way the research problem does. Referring back to the working title can help you reorient yourself back to the main purpose of the study if you find yourself drifting off on a tangent while writing.

The Final Title

Effective titles in academic research papers have several characteristics that reflect general principles.

• Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the study,

• Rarely use abbreviations or acronyms unless they are commonly known,

• Use words that create a positive impression and stimulate reader interest,

• Use current nomenclature from the field of study,

• Identify key variables, both dependent and independent,

• Reveal how the paper will be organized,

• Suggest a relationship between variables which supports the major hypothesis,

• Is limited to 5 to 15 substantive words,

• Does not include redundant phrasing, such as, «A Study of», «An Analysis of» or similar constructions,

• Takes the form of a question or declarative statement,

• If you use a quote as part of the title, the source of the quote is cited (usually using an asterisk and footnote),

• Use correct grammar and capitalization with all first words and last words capitalized, including the first word of a subtitle. All nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs that appear between the first and last words of the title are also capitalized, and

• Rarely uses an exclamation mark at the end of the title.

Source URL: http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/title

13. Translate the following titles in academic research papers:

A.

1. «Multiple Dimensions of Bureaucratic Discrimination: Evidence from German Welfare Offices» by Johannes Hemker and Anselm Rink.

2. «Multiple Dimensions of Bureaucratic Discrimination: Evidence from German Welfare Offices» by Johannes Hemker and Anselm Rink.

3. «Dynamics of Policymaking: Stepping Back to Leap Forward, Stepping Forward to Keep Back» by Peter Buisseret and Dan Bernhardt.

4. «Dynamics of Policymaking: Stepping Back to Leap Forward, Stepping Forward to Keep Back» by Peter Buisseret and Dan Bernhardt.

5. «The Legacy of Political Violence across Generations» by Noam Lupu and Leonid Peisakhin.

6. «Fictitious Freedom: A Polanyian Critique of the Republican Revival» by Steven Klein.

7. «Cities as Lobbyists» by Rebecca Goldstein and Hye Young You.

8. «How Do Indifferent Voters Decide? The Political Importance of Implicit Attitudes» by Timothy J. Ryan.

9. «Taking the Law to Court: Citizen Suits and the Legislative Process» by Marion Dumas.

10. «Electoral Ambiguity and Political Representation» by Navin Kartik, Richard Van Weelden and Stephane Wolton.

Source: https://www.jstor.org/

B.

1. Сардарян Г. Т. Понятие и сущность принципа субсидиарности в политической мысли Европы и католическом социальном учении. (concept // essence // subsidiarity).

2. Сардарян Г. Т. Понятие, сущность и основные этапы развития католической социальной доктрины (main stages // evolvement // Catholic social doctrine).

3. Сардарян Г. Т. Влияние органов ЕС на процесс регионализации в Итальянской республике (EU authorities impact).

4. Сардарян Г. Т. Регионализация и федерализация в контексте трансформации форм политико-территориального устройства государств (in the context of transformation // political and territorial division).

5. Сардарян Г. Т. Конституционная реформа 2001 года в Италии в контексте перехода от сложного унитарного государства к федеративному (in the context of transition from a unitary to federal system).

6. Алексеева Т. А. Дебаты о «Великих дебатах» — как структурировать теорию международных отношений? (The Great Debate // to structure the theory of international relations).

7. Алексеева Т. А. «Земля смятения»: квантовая теория в международных отношениях? (Land of Confusion // quantum theory).

8. Алексеева Т. А. Теория международных отношений в зеркалах «научных картин мира»: что дальше? (the theory reflected in the scientific world picture // what’s next?).

9. Алексеева Т. А. Придет ли время «случайных» людей во власти? (random people);

10. Гаман-Голутвина О. В. O локальном и глобальном измерении трансформаций элит (measurement of transformations);

11. Гаман-Голутвина О. В. Мировой опыт реформирования систем государственного управления (global experience // public administration reforms);

12. Гаман-Голутвина О. В. Человеческий капитал в экономике знаний: управленческий аспект (human capital // knowledge economy // managerial aspect);

13. Гаман-Голутвина О. В. Трансформации ценностных ориентаций российских элит в постсоветский период (values systems // Russian elites // post-Soviet period);

14. Гаман-Голутвина О. В. Система государственного управления как инструмент антикризисной политики: оценка эффективности (measures of the anti-crisis policies // evaluation of effectiveness).

14. Compile five eye-catching headlines for the research papers focusing on the basic concepts of political science.

15. Below there are political idioms used in mass media and political studies. Find a similar idiom in Russian which might reflect the meaning of the relevant idiom in English. Make a sentence of your own in English including the idiom:

bleeding-heart liberal: used as an insult towards someone who expresses concern for people who are suffering injustice of some sort — Ben can’t stand those bleeding-heart liberals who moan about all the injustice in the world;

buzzword: a word that has become trendy or fashionable — His speech was full of fancy-sounding buzzwords like «synergistic» and «paradigm shift»;

checks and balances: various forces in a political system that help to stop one party or person, or one arm of government, from becoming too powerful — A democracy can easily turn into a dictatorship if the system of checks and balances breaks down;

climate denial: the refusal to accept that climate change is real and is caused by human activity — Most of the scientists backing climate denial are being paid by the fossil fuel industry. (also «climate change denial»);

dog whistle: a political message that triggers prejudice, fear or bias in the people it’s aimed at — The far right’s using an image of dark-skinned people climbing over a border fence as a dog whistle to racists.

https://www.englishclub.com/glossaries/politics-idioms.php

Unit 3. POLITICAL SCIENCE: EVOLUTION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

DOING THEORY

1. Translate the following:

(a) from English into Russian

Historical Evolution of Political Science

1) The study of politics and power from a national, global, and comparative perspective is known as political science. Political science, as it is generally understood and studied, investigates the state, as well as its institutions and organizations. The focus on power defined as the capacity of one political actor to influence another person to do what is desired at the global, national, and local levels sets political science apart from the other social sciences.

TRANSLATION STRATEGIES: CONDUCTING THE SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF A COMPLEX SYNTACTIC PASSAGE

if you face a necessity to translate a complex syntactic passage from English into Russian, the first step to take is to identify the principal clause of the sentence in question:

e. g.

The focus on power defined as the capacity of one political actor to influence another person to do what is desired at the global, national, and local levels sets political science apart from the other social sciences.

In this case, the principal clause is — The focus on power sets political science apart from the other social sciences.

The next thing to do is to translate such principal clause into Russian to understand the main message of the sentence:

Фокус политической науки на вопросах власти отличает ее от других общественных наук.

Thirdly, you should identify and translate the group of the words relating the principal subject:

The focus on power defined as the capacity of one political actor to influence another person to do what is desired at the global, national, and local levels =

Фокус политической науки на вопросах власти, определяемой как способность политического актора воздействовать на другое лицо с целью заставить его совершить желаемое на глобальном, национальном и местном уровнях…

Then, if there are any words relating to the principal predicate, translate them; otherwise, be ready to translate the whole sentence.

In our scenario the final version will be:

Фокус политической науки на вопросах власти, определяемой как способность политического актора воздействовать на другое лицо с целью заставить его совершить желаемое на глобальном, национальном и местном уровнях, отличает ее от других общественных наук.

1) Analyses of politics emerged in ancient cultures in works by various thinkers, but the fullest explication of politics has been in the West. Some have identified Plato, whose ideal of a stable republic still yields insights and metaphors (идеал устойчивой республики до сих пор служит источником научных представлений и метафор), as the first political scientist, though most consider Aristotle, who introduced empirical observation into the study of politics, to be the discipline’s true founder.

2) Aristotle distinguished political systems by the number of persons ruling (one, few, or many) and by whether the form was legitimate (rulers governing in the interests of all) or corrupt (rulers governing in their own interests). Legitimate systems included monarchy (rule by one), aristocracy (rule by the few), and polity (rule by the many), while corresponding corrupt forms were tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy. Aristotle’s classification endured for centuries and is still helpful in understanding political systems.

TRANSLATION STRATEGIES: BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE AS A PRE-REQUISITE FOR PROPER TRANSLATION

The underlying facts relating to the translation topic might be critical for the best results. Thus, any time you come across some vague or unclear issues, research the topic to gain clear and full understanding thereof. This is particularly true when you deal with some classic theories or concepts.

e. g.

Legitimate systems included monarchy (rule by one), aristocracy (rule by the few), and polity (rule by the many).

In the above case we’d better look into the terms “rule by one”, “rule by the few”, and “rule by the many” as coined by Aristotle and find the appropriate equivalents in the Russian language that are used in Russian academic literature.

The final version will be:

Правильные формы правления включали в себя монархию (правление одного в интересах общего блага), аристократию (правление немногих лучших ради блага всех), политию (правление лучшего большинства ради общего блага).

3) Early Christian thinkers, such as St. Augustine (354–430), emphasized the dual loyalty of Christians to both God and temporal rulers, with the clear implication that the «heavenly city» (град небесный) is more important and durable than the earthly one (град земной). With this came anotherworldly disdain for politics (потустороннее презрение к политике). St. Thomas Aquinas (1224/25–1274) took from Aristotle the idea that humans are both rational and social, that states occur naturally, and that government can improve humans spiritually. Thus, Aquinas favoured monarchy but despised tyranny, arguing that kingly authority should be limited by law and used for the common good.

4) The first modern political scientist was the Italian writer Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527). His infamous work The Prince (1531), a treatise (трактат) originally dedicated to Florence’s ruler, Lorenzo di Piero de’ Medici, presented amoral advice to actual and would-be princes on the best means of acquiring and holding on to political power. Machiavelli introduced the modern idea of power—how to get it and how to use it—as the crux of politics, a viewpoint shared by today’s international relations «realists», rational choice theorists, and others.

5) The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) also placed power at the centre of his political analysis. In Leviathan; or, The Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil (1651), Hobbes outlined, how humans, endowed with a natural right to self-preservation but living in an anarchic state of nature, would be driven by fear of violent death to form a civil society and submit to a single sovereign authority (a monarch) to ensure their peace and security through a social contract — an actual or hypothetical agreement between citizens and their rulers that defines the rights and duties of each.

6) Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) was the radical. Rousseau’s The Social Contract (1762) constructs a civil society in which the separate wills of individuals are combined to govern as the «general will» of the collective that overrides individual wills, «forcing a man to be free». Rousseau’s radical vision was embraced by French revolutionaries and later by totalitarians, who distorted many of his philosophical lessons.

7) Contemporary political science traces its roots primarily to the 19th century, when the rapid growth of the natural sciences stimulated enthusiasm for the creation of a new social science.

8) Antoine-Louis-Claude, Comte Destutt de Tracy (1754–1836) in the 1790s coined the term idéologie («ideology») for his «science of ideas», which, he believed, could perfect society.

9) The scientific approach to politics developed during the 19th century along two distinct lines that still divide the discipline. In the 1830s the French historian and politician Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859) brilliantly analyzed democracy in America, concluding that it worked because Americans had developed «the art of association» and were egalitarian group formers. Tocqueville’s emphasis on cultural values contrasted sharply with the views of the German socialist theorists Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895), who advanced a materialistic and economic theory of the state as an instrument of domination by the classes that own the means of production. Asserting what they considered to be an immutable scientific law of history, they argued that the state would soon be overthrown by the industrial working class (the proletariat), who would institute socialism, a just and egalitarian form of governance.

10) The first separate school of political science was established in 1872 in France as the École Libre des Sciences Politiques. In 1895 the London School of Economics and Political Science was founded in England, and the first chair of politics was established at the University of Oxford in 1912.

11) Some of the most important developments in political science since it became a distinct academic discipline have occurred in the United States. Politics had long been studied in American universities, but usually as part of the curricula of law, philosophy, or economics. Political science as a separate discipline in universities in the United States dates from 1880, when John W. Burgess, after studying at the École Libre in Paris, established a school of political science at Columbia University in New York City.

12) The work of American political scientists represented an effort to establish an autonomous discipline, separate from history, moral philosophy, and political economy. Among the new scholars were Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924), who would be elected president of the United States in 1912, and Frank Goodnow, a Columbia University professor of administrative law and, later, president of Johns Hopkins University, who was among the first to study municipal governments.

13) Harold Lasswell (1902–1978), a member of the Chicago group, carried the psychological approach to Yale University, where he had a commanding influence. His Psychopathology and Politics (1930) and Power and Personality (1948) fused categories of Freudian psychology with considerations of power. Lasswell, for example, viewed politicians as unbalanced people with an inordinate need for power, whereas “normal” people had no compulsion for political office.

14) Merriam’s Political Power (1934) and Lasswell’s classic Politics: Who Gets What, When, How (1936) — the title of which articulated the basic definition of politics—gave a central place to the phenomenon of power in the empirical study of politics. Merriam discussed how power comes into being, how it becomes «authority» (which he equated with power), the techniques of power holders, the defenses of those over whom power is wielded, and the dissipation of power. Lasswell focused on «influence and the influential», laying the basis for subsequent «elite» theories of politics.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/political-science/19th-century-roots-of-contemporary-political-science

15) The German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920), who rejected Marx and embraced Tocqueville’s emphasis on culture and values, was perhaps the most influential figure in political science in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Weber discerned three types of authority: traditional (as in monarchies), charismatic (a concept he developed to refer to the personal drawing power of revolutionary leaders), and rational-legal (characteristic of modern societies). Weber coined the term bureaucracy, and he was the first to study bureaucracies systematically

16) Behavioralism, which was one of the dominant approaches in the 1950s and ’60s, is the view that the subject matter of political science should be limited to phenomena that are independently observable and quantifiable. It assumes that political institutions largely reflect underlying social forces and that the study of politics should begin with society, culture, and public opinion. To this end, behavioralists utilize the methodology of the social sciences — primarily psychology — to establish statistical relationships between independent variables (presumed causes) and dependent variables (presumed effects). Like behaviourism in psychology, behavioralism in political science attempted to discard intuition, or at least to support it with empirical observation. A traditionalist, in contrast, might attempt to support intuition with reason alone.

lathateacher.wordpress.com/2021/01/14/approaches-t...tics-behaviouralism/

17) There was no consensus among political scientists concerning the system that developed after the end of the Cold War. Some scholars believed that there was a return to a 19th century balance-of-power system, in which multiple states make and remake alliances. Others argued for the existence of a multipolar system consisting of trade blocs that were neither mutually hostile nor totally cooperative with each other. Some argued that the international system became unipolar, the United States being the single dominant world power. Huntington, in a controversial article published in 1993 and a book, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, published in 1996, used cultural theory to propose that the emerging international system constituted a «clash of civilizations». Several civilizations, each based mostly on religion, variously clashed and cooperated. The worst clashes, he argued, took place between Islamic and other civilizations.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/political-science

Fill in the chart below:

VOCABULARY

ENGLISH | RUSSIAN
To yield insights and metaphors |
To endure for centuries |
Heavenly city |
A treatise |
The crux of politics |
To placed power at the centre of a political analysis |
Actual and would-be princes |
To submit to a single sovereign authority |
To ensure peace and security |
To distort |
To trace one’s roots to |
To contrast sharply with |
To advance a theory |
A distinct academic discipline |
To discern three types of authority |

(b) From Russian into English

1) Термин «политическая наука» появился в середине ХIХ века (to coin a term).

2) Научные представления о политике (scientific insights about politics) появились в эпоху античности (in ancient times). С этим временем связаны попытки описания происхождения и функционирования политической власти без ссылок на потусторонние силы.

Clause Pattern: попытки описания происхождения и функционирования политической власти = attempts to describe how political power emerges and operates;

3) Аристотель (384–322 гг. до н. э.) часто именуется отцом политической науки (the founder of political science). Он дал детальную типологию форм правления, среди них он выделял правильные (legitimate) и неправильные (corrupt).

4) К правильным формам правления он отнес монархию (правление одного в интересах общего блага), аристократию (правление немногих лучших ради блага всех), политию (правление лучшего большинства ради общего блага).

5) К неправильным — тиранию, олигархию (правление немногих богатых в собственных интересах), демократию (неограниченное правление неимущего большинства в своих интересах). Здесь демократия у него отождествляется с охлократией (властью толпы). Наилучшей формой правления он считал политию.

6) В средние века политическая мысль носила сильную религиозную окраску (was theologized). Весь мир, в том числе и сфера политики, объяснялся как следствие проявление божественной воли (Divine will).

7) Фома Аквинский (1225–1274) считал власть государя обусловленной божественной волей. Светской власти, по его мнению, подчиняется только тело людей, а не их дух.

8) Отказ от религиозной догматики и возврат к рационализму античности связан с эпохой Возрождения. Основателем новой науки о политике явился итальянский политический мыслитель Никколо Макиавелли (1469–1527). Он доказывал, что полезное для власти может противоречить нормам морали.

9) Достижением Нового времени явилась концепция «общественного договора», согласно которой происхождение государства связано не с божественной волей, а является следствием свободного волеизъявления людей, стремящихся упорядочить свои взаимоотношения.

10) Эту концепцию разрабатывали английские философы Гоббс и Локк. Так, Томас Гоббс (1588–1674) в своей книге «Левиафан» видит в государстве результат общественного согласия, передачи отдельными людьми части личных прав и свобод единому органу ради обеспечения собственной безопасности. По его мнению, задачей государства является прекращение естественного состояния общества — «войны всех против всех».

11) Джон Локк (1632–1701) высказал идею об естественных правах человека — праве на жизнь, свободу, собственность (natural rights to freedom, liberty, and property). Он считал политическую свободу гарантией свободы экономической. Локк в числе первых заговорил о необходимости разделения власти (separation of power). Им предлагалось разделить государственную власть на законодательную (the legislature) и исполнительную (the executive), включающую в себя судебную власть (the judiciary).

12) Французский мыслитель Жан Жак Руссо (1712–1778) исходя из концепции общественного договора обосновал принцип народного суверенитета как власти направляемой общей волей. Руссо и другие приверженцы концепции общественного договора считали возможным свержение власти, если она перестает служить интересам общества.

13) Существенно обогатили мировую политическую мысль идеи, высказанные основоположниками марксизма. Карл Маркс (1818–1883) и Фридрих Энгельс (1820–1896) главным фактором в общественной жизни считали экономику. Экономика, по их мнению, определяет развитие других сфер общественной жизни, в том числе и политики.

14) До XIX века можно было говорить лишь о существовании политических взглядов в рамках философских, юридических теорий, исторических описаний, публицистических работ. Особой науки о политике не было. По вопросу об институционализации политологии, становлении политологии как отдельной науки единства мнений нет. Здесь спор идет между Германией и США. Одна точка зрения состоит в том, что политология образовалась в Германии в первой половине XIX века из правовой школы. Другая относит появление политологии к событиям в США, происшедшим в 50-е годы XIX века.

15) Немецкий ученый Макс Вебер (1864–1920) известен как автор учений о типах легитимности власти (традиционном, легально-рациональном и харизматическом), о сущности власти, об особенностях государства (оно имеет право на легальное насилие). До сих пор большое значение имеет его теория рациональной бюрократии.

16) Итальянский исследователь Вильфред Парето (1848–1923) является создателем теории политических элит. Согласно ему, вся политическая жизнь представлена борьбой двух типов элит: «львов» и «лис», сменяющих друг друга у власти.

17) Окончательное становление политологии как самостоятельной науки связано с решением ЮНЕСКО в 1948 году о статусе и структуре политической науки. В 1949 году под эгидой ЮНЕСКО была создана международная ассоциация политической науки.

Source: https://www.grandars.ru/college/sociologiya/istoriya-politologii.html

Fill in the chart below:

VOCABULARY

RUSSIAN | ENGLISH
Потусторонние силы |
Правильные и неправильные формы правления |
Проявление божественной воли |
Светская власть |
Религиозная догматика |
Противоречить нормам морали |
«Общественный договор» |
Общественное согласие |
«Война всех против всех» |
Естественные права человека |
Разделение власти |
Движущая сила истории |
Институционализация политологии |
Становление политологии как отдельной науки |
Теория рациональной бюрократии |

2. Answer the following questions:

(1) What is the scope of political science?

(2) When does the term «political science» emerge?

(3) When did political science become a distinct academic discipline?

(4) What are the contributions to political science made by: Aristotle; St. Thomas Aquinas; Niccolò Machiavelli; Thomas Hobbes; Jean-Jacques Rousseau?

(5) Where did the term «ideology» come from?

(6) Where and when was the first separate school of political science established?

(7) Describe the classification of authority developed by M. Weber.

(8) Which of political theorists gave a central place to the phenomenon of power in the empirical study of politics?

(9) What is behavioralism? When did it start evolving? Describe its basic characteristics.

(10) How did Huntington contribute to the development of political science?

(11) What is the cultural theory developed by Huntington about?

(12) What are the main stages of scientific institutionalization in political studies?

DOING TRANSLATION

3. Read, understand and remember the following:

Translation Pattern

Inverted Order Pattern (RUS: Predicate + Subject = ENGL: Subject + Predicate)

4. Translate the following using the Inverted Order Pattern:

(1) Достижением Нового времени явилась концепция «общественного договора».

(2) Существенно обогатили мировую политическую мысль идеи, высказанные основоположниками марксизма.

(3) В научных кругах отсутствует единое мнение по поводу времени и места институционализации политологии.

(4) Концепцию «общественного договора» разработали английские философы Гоббс и Локк.

(5) В эпоху античности появились первые представления о политике.

(6) С этим временем связаны попытки описания происхождения и функционирования политической власти.

(7) По мнению Фомы Аквинского, светской власти подчиняется только тело людей, а не их дух.

(8) В конце XIX века происходит становление политологии как науки.

(9) По мнению Гоббса, задачей государства является прекращение естественного состояния общества — «войны всех против всех».

(10) С эпохой Возрождения связан отказ от религиозной догматики и возврат к рационализму античности.

DOING ACADEMIC WRITING

5. Read and memorize the following:

Guidelines to Write a Political Essay

Create an argument. Political essays often deal with normative issues. The goal of the student is to give a concrete treatment of the basic interpretative facts and give his thoughts on the theoretical problem. As it is an opinion, there is no correct or wrong answer. The student just simply has to persuade his readers by developing a compelling argument which is well substantiated by a comprehensive and insightful interpretative work.

Develop a thesis. The goal of the student is to develop a thesis which he should sustain during whole paper. A political essay should be organized in such a way that it will be a thesis emphasizing a conceptual argument. That is, the student should choose a position which is clearly stated, and assemble references to offer the readers some sense of credibility. The textual references will ensure the readers that the student has observed the question in a thoughtful manner.

Apply theories learned in the course. Political essays and essays, in general, are technically the application of all the lectures and seminars attended by the student, all the discussions, and all the of the assigned readings. The student then should be able to apply all these theories and lessons learned in school.

Define your terms. Political essays are scholarly written documents that give a new perspective on the conceptual sides of main political theories and problems this is why a student who is writing a political essay should define terms used in the document with great precision.

Cite sources. When making an argument, the student has to ensure that he substantiates it with facts that are properly cited in the footnotes. The reason for this, aside from not plagiarizing these authors, is to refer the readers to a particular factual claim to its proper reference should they want to read about it further. It also helps to write an essay that is more interesting and informative.

Write an outline and several drafts. A good political essay is not crafted overnight. It takes a great deal of critical revisions. The outline should also have a timeline to ensure that you have ample time to make revisions and finalize it accordingly before the due date. Editing and proofreading eliminate weak paragraphs and illogical transitions, and ultimately makes the political essay a well-research and well-written one.

Other Reminders on Writing a Political Essay

Be analytical. A political essay is not just a simple collation of all data and information related to political theories. The student must emphasize an informed argument and ensure that he has made a thorough research so he has enough tools to use for independent and creative thinking. As an example, you can include obvious meanings to arguments, as well as the subtle and even contradictory dimensions of it.

Keep it scholarly. The student author must avoid casual language and sloppy argumentations. He has to remember that political essays are an academic type of discourse. A scholarly tone will give the readers the impression that the essay is going to be informative and interesting, without compromising the kind of words and arguments to be included in the essay.

Comment on quotes. At some point, the student will have to quote sources and references to build an argument. But after providing the direct quotation, he must ensure to make a commentary on it. After all, the paper has to be an analysis of your research, not a simple compilation of it.

Be concise. For a student to avoid filling the political essay with too many quotes, he can paraphrase passages, using paraphrase tool. Although, he has to remember that plagiarism is no way acceptable in the academe and must still cite the original source. The rule still applies that the student has to include a commentary of the paraphrased passage. This is to avoid making your paper strike a reader as a plain summary as it is not supposed to.

Explore texts carefully. While the student may oppose arguments, he must avoid bias and recognize both its strengths and weaknesses to engage in advanced forms of interpretative work.

Assume non-experts as readers. In writing political essays, make sure to limit the use of jargons and complicated terminologies. And when the student does use it, he must define the terms thoroughly. A good political essay must not only present a well-researched and well-written paper but should be able to educate the reader about political theories. To do so, the student then should craft in a way that is easy to understand by the common mind.

Embrace objections. Not everyone will agree with your thesis or arguments. When a reader raises an issue, accept it and rebut accordingly. This process should be able to develop your political essay in a way that you can spot weaknesses and instead make it richer and more penetrating.

https://moderndiplomacy.eu/

SAMPLE POLITICAL SCIENCE ESSAYS

From: https://collegeessay.org/

6. Translate the sample essays below. Analyze and discuss their structure:

(1) Topic: Characteristics of Political Science

Understanding the Scope and Methods of the Discipline Political science is a discipline that studies the dynamics of power, governance, and decision-making in society. It encompasses a broad range of topics, from the study of political institutions and behavior to the analysis of public policy and international relations. In this essay, we will explore some of the key characteristics of political science, including its scope, methods, and theoretical frameworks. Political science is characterized by its broad scope, which encompasses a wide range of topics and issues. It includes the study of political institutions, such as legislatures, executives, and judiciaries, as well as the analysis of political behavior, public opinion, and electoral systems. Political science also encompasses the study of public policy, international relations, and comparative politics, providing a comprehensive understanding of political phenomena at all levels of analysis. To study these complex phenomena, political science uses a diverse range of research methods, including quantitative and qualitative approaches. These methods include statistical analysis, survey research, case studies, and historical analysis, among others. Political scientists draw on a variety of methods to answer research questions, depending on the nature of the research problem and the available data.

Political science is also characterized by its theoretical pluralism, which allows it to offer insights into complex political phenomena from multiple perspectives. Political scientists draw on a variety of theoretical frameworks, including rational choice theory, institutionalism, Marxism, feminism, and post-colonialism, among others, to analyze political phenomena. This theoretical pluralism enables political science to offer a rich and nuanced understanding of complex social and political phenomena. In conclusion, political science is a discipline that is characterized by its broad scope, diverse methods, and theoretical pluralism. These characteristics enable political science to offer insights into complex social and political phenomena and address pressing social and political issues. As the world continues to face new and complex challenges, the study of political science will remain an important tool for understanding and addressing these challenges in an informed and effective way.

(2) Topic: Political Theory Essay Title: «An Analysis of John Locke’s Theory of Property Rights»

In his seminal work, «Two Treatises of Government», John Locke argued that property rights are a fundamental aspect of a just and free society. This essay will analyze Locke’s theory of property rights, examining its historical context, key concepts, and implications for modern political theory. Locke’s theory of property rights is based on the idea that individuals have a natural right to their own person and labor. According to Locke, when individuals mix their labor with unowned natural resources, they create private property that is rightfully theirs. This theory was developed in response to the enclosure movement in seventeenth-century England, which saw the privatization of formerly common lands and resources. Locke’s theory of property rights has important implications for modern political theory, particularly in debates about distributive justice and the role of the state in protecting individual rights. On one hand, Locke’s theory has been used to justify laissez-faire economic policies and the privatization of public goods. On the other hand, it has also been used to argue for a more egalitarian distribution of wealth and resources. One criticism of Locke’s theory of property rights is that it relies on an individualist conception of property that ignores the role of social and political institutions in shaping property relations. Critics argue that property rights are not natural or absolute, but rather are shaped by historical and cultural factors, as well as by the actions of the state. Another criticism of Locke’s theory is that it assumes a level playing field, in which all individuals have equal access to natural resources and can exercise their labor freely. In reality, however, many individuals do not have equal access to resources and may be subject to various forms of coercion or exploitation. Despite these criticisms, Locke’s theory of property rights remains an important contribution to modern political theory, providing a framework for understanding the role of property rights in a just and free society. By analyzing the historical context, key concepts, and implications of Locke’s theory, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the complexities of property relations and their relationship to broader political and social structures.

(3) Title: The Impact of Social Media on Political Communication

The rise of social media has revolutionized the way people interact with one another and has fundamentally changed the nature of political communication. With the advent of platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram, politicians can now reach out to their constituents in ways that were previously unimaginable. This paper will examine the impact of social media on political communication, and will argue that it has both positive and negative effects on the democratic process. One of the most significant advantages of social media is its ability to connect politicians with their constituents in a more direct and personal way. Through social media platforms, politicians can interact with voters, share their views and opinions, and respond to questions and concerns in real-time. This type of engagement can help build trust and rapport between politicians and voters, and can lead to greater accountability and transparency in the political process. However, social media can also have negative effects on political communication. One of the most significant drawbacks is the potential for the spread of misinformation and fake news. Because social media is often unregulated, false or misleading information can be spread quickly and easily, which can undermine the democratic process and erode public trust in the political system. Additionally, social media can sometimes be used to promote extreme or polarizing viewpoints, which can contribute to political polarization and social division. Despite these challenges, social media remains an important tool for political communication, and its impact is likely to continue to grow in the future. As such, it is crucial that politicians and citizens alike become more aware of the potential benefits and risks of social media, and work together to promote responsible and ethical use of these platforms. In conclusion, social media has had a profound impact on political communication, both positive and negative. While it has the potential to connect politicians with their constituents in new and innovative ways, it also presents challenges such as the spread of misinformation and polarization. Ultimately, the impact of social media on political communication will depend on how it is used and regulated in the years to come.

7. Using the guidelines and sample political essays above write essays on the topics below:

• The views on power in political philosophy;

• A critical analysis of the concept of legitimacy;

• A comparative study of the political thought of Plato and Machiavelli;

• The impact of social media on political campaigns and elections;

• The role of ideology in shaping public policy;

• The role of religion in shaping political ideologies.

8. Below there are political idioms used in mass media and political studies. Find a similar idiom in Russian which might reflect the meaning of the relevant idiom in English. Make a sentence of your own in English including the idiom:

crony capitalism: an economic system in which corrupt government officials work with greedy business owners to enrich each other, often at taxpayers’ expense — Crony capitalism could be the most widespread economic system in the world at this time;

culture war: a divisive public debate between groups in society with contrasting values, beliefs, and goals — My progressive sister and our conservative parents are on opposite sides of the culture wars;

fake news: a deliberately false report presented as real news in order to mislead or deceive readers — If a report in your social media feed isn’t from a big news site, it could easily be fake news;

fearmongering: the creation of fear for political reasons — To get more votes, they resorted to fearmongering by spreading fake news about a coming economic collapse. (also «scaremongering»);

greenwashing: an advertising campaign that promotes a false image of environmental responsibility in order to increase a company’s sales and profits — Many companies that produce environmentally-damaging products like insecticides use greenwashing to create an eco-friendly image. (also «greenwash» and «green sheen»).

https://www.englishclub.com/glossaries/politics-idioms.php

Unit 4. POLITICAL THEORY

DOING THEORY

1. Read and translate the following:

(1) Political theory in a broader sense discussed everything that is political in nature. Political theory is a theory and science of politics, which constructs the base of approaches through which political theory can be understood. Political theory can be understood by methods and approaches. The approaches are very important to study the objectivity behind it. Political theory is concerned with political ideas, values and concepts, and the explanation of prediction of political behaviour. There are two broad branches of political theory; one is the traditional approach, with its value, analytic, historical and speculative concerns. The other is the contemporary approach, with its efforts to explain, predict, guide, research and organize knowledge through the formulation of abstract models, and scientifically testable propositions.

(2) Political theory and political philosophy may overlap, but a difference of emphasis can nevertheless be identified. Anything from a plan to a piece of abstract knowledge can be described as a «theory». In academic discourse, however, a theory is an explanatory proposition, an idea or set of ideas that in some way seeks to impose order or meaning upon phenomena. Political science, no less than the natural sciences and other social sciences, therefore has an important theoretical component. For example, theories, such as that social class is the principal determinant of voting behaviour, and that revolutions occur at times of rising expectations, are essential if sense is to be made of empirical evidence. This is what is called empirical political theory.

(3) Political theory involves the analytical study of ideas and doctrines that have been central to political thought. Traditionally, this has taken the form of a history of political thought, focusing upon a collection of «major» thinkers — for instance, from Plato to Marx — and a canon of «classic» texts. As it studies the ends and means of political action, political theory is clearly concerned with ethical or normative questions, such as «Why should I obey the state?», «How rewards should be distributed?».

https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/psp03/chapter/institutional-approach/www.studocu.com/in/document/lady-shri-ram-college-...nd-concepts/47214727

(4) Political theory is concerned with three types of statements: (1) empirical statement, which is based on observation, through sense-experience alone; (2) logical statement, which is based on reasoning (e. g. ‘two plus two is four’); and (3) evaluative statement, which is based on value-judgment (e. g. ‘men are born free and equal’). Political science relies only on empirical and logical statements.

(5) The traditional approach is value based and lays emphasis on the inclusion of values to the study of political phenomena. The adherents of this approach believe that the study of political science should not be based on facts alone since facts and values are closely related to each other. Since the days of Plato and Aristotle «the great issues of politics» have revolved around normative orientations. Accordingly, there are a large number of traditional approaches like legal approach, philosophical approach, historical approach, institutional approach etc. Thus, traditional approach with its entire intrinsic feature has made tremendous contribution to the understanding of political problems. Even now political researchers adhere to traditional approach for understanding issues of government and politics which shows significance of traditional approach.

(6) Historical approach believes that political phenomena could be understood better with the help of historical factors like age, place, situations etc. Political thinkers like Machiavelli, Sabine and Dunning believe that politics and history are intricately related and the study of politics always should have a historical perspective. Sabine is of the view that political science should include all those subjects which have been discussed in the writings of different political thinkers from the time of Plato. Every past is linked with the present and thus the historical analysis provides a chronological order of every political phenomenon.

(7) Normative approach poses questions based on «norms» or «standards» in the study of social sciences with an aim to appraise values. Unlike the empirical approach that is concerned about «what happened and why» the normative approach emphasizes «what should have happened». A normative approach underscores the probable course of action that may uphold an innate value, the primacy of which is an end in itself. For instance, if a normative statement establishes the pre-eminence of values such as truth, good or beautiful or any one of them, it has served its purpose.

(8) An institution is a set of offices and agencies arranged in a hierarchy, where each office or agency has certain functions and powers. Each office or agency is manned by persons with definite status and role; other persons also expect them to perform this role. The activities of an institution are not confined to its office-holders. For instance, people elect their representative to hold the office of representation, thus people do not hold office directly. Accordingly, the upholders of the institutional approach proceed to study the organization and functioning of government, its various organs, political parties and other institutions affecting politics. Classification of governments, starting from Aristotle to modern classification, identification of levels of government (federal, state and local) as well as branches of government (executive, legislative, judicial), composition and powers of each of these and their interrelationships, etc. are the chief concerns of this approach.

(9) Contemporary approaches to the study of politics signify a departure from traditional approaches in two respects: (a) they attempt to establish a separate identity of political science by focusing on the real character of politics; and (b) they try to understand politics in totality, transcending its formal aspects and looking for those aspects of social life which influence and are influenced by it. Contemporary approaches are legion, and all of them may not fulfill these conditions. The following may be regarded as the most important: (a) empirical approach; (b) behavioural approach; (c) post-behavioural approach.

(10) Empirical approach which derives theories from empirical observations was dominant political theory in the twentieth century. Empirical political theory refuses to accord the status of knowledge to those theories which indulge in value judgements. This empirical project in political theory was premised on the empiricist theory of knowledge which claims to have the full-blown criteria to test what constitutes truth and falsehood. The essence of this criterion is lodged in the experimentation and the verification principle. When political theory was reeling under this influence, a so-called revolution started and became popular as the «Behavioural Revolution».

(11) Behaviouralism, or the behavioural approach to the analysis and explanation of political phenomena, is particularly associated with the works of American political scientists after the Second World War, but its origins may be traced back to the works of Graham Wallas (Human Nature in Politics) and Arthur Bentley (The Process of Government), both published as early as 1908. Both Wallas and Bentley were inclined to lay greater emphasis on the informal processes of politics and less on political institutions in isolation. Wallas sought to introduce a new realism in political studies in the light of the new findings of contemporary psychology. While classical economists, the champions of the laissez-faire doctrine, had treated man as a rational creature following his self-interest, the new psychology had revealed that man was not a rational creature in this sense and that his political actions were not totally guided by reason and self-interest.

NB! Read, translate and remember the following:

Behaviouralism | Бихевиорализм (от англ. behaviour — «поведение») — подход в политической науке, появившийся в 1930-х годах в США. Он представляет собой резкий отход от предыдущих подходов в упоре на объективный, количественный подход к объяснению и прогнозированию политического поведения.
Behaviourism | Бихевиоризм (от англ.