Alexander Koptyakov
Other People's Children

01 Civilizations

Writer: It was a warm, dry Moscow day. We were strolling through the alleys of VDNKh. Without any particular destination – wherever our feet would take us, wherever our thoughts would lead. Just chatting. The conversation turned to photo sharing social networking services. I wasn’t registered yet and, frankly, didn’t understand what exactly I would photograph and share publicly if I got an account. Back then, this trend was just starting; many people were photographing and posting pictures of their food and selfies. And then, a manhole cover caught my eye. An idea! I’ll photograph and post pictures of manhole covers – them and only them! Since then, I’ve collected a collection of over several hundred unique manhole covers from all over the planet! Some people bring back magnets or figurines from their travels, but I photograph manhole covers in any new place, whether it’s a vacation or a business trip. At some point, friends and acquaintances also started photographing and sending me photos of manhole covers from their trips. I post those too. So now the geography of published manhole covers is wider than my personal experience. The only thing is, my friends complain that they’ve “gotten hooked on it“ and now, instead of the usual tourist attractions, they first look under their feet in search of a new unique manhole cover :) They complain, but they find them, photograph them, and send them to me. And I post them. It’s been almost ten years now.

Consultant: And remember how I almost got arrested in St. Petersburg because of your manhole covers! :) So, there I was, walking early in the morning to the Hotel Indigo for the fourth week of organizational development in the Gestalt approach. I still had some time, so I decided to take a walk to the Neva River. I see a manhole cover. Old, worn, with the barely discernible inscription “DEFENSE OF LENINGRAD.“ Just as I photographed it, out of the corner of my eye, I see another one like it a few meters ahead, but with a clearer inscription. I photograph the second manhole cover – and out of the corner of my eye, I see the next one, and move towards it. The third manhole cover had the clearest inscription. I’m delighted, carefully focusing my camera on the manhole cover, and suddenly someone shouts from behind me: “What are you doing here? Show me what you’re photographing!“ I turn around, finally lifting my head. In front of me stands an officer, and behind him, the entrance to a building with a sign “FEDERAL SECURITY SERVICE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION – DIRECTORATE FOR THE CITY OF ST. PETERSBURG AND LENINGRAD OBLAST,“ Liteyny Prospekt, No. 4! To be honest, I’m not sure what he found stranger in the end: the fact that a person was photographing manhole covers near the FSB building, or that I started showing him my social media feed with pictures of manhole covers from all over the world.

Engineer: Did he let you go?

Consultant: He let me go :) He didn’t look any further at my feed. It even felt a bit disappointing, I wanted to show him more manhole covers.

Engineer: And do you know why most manhole covers are round?

Writer: I’ve never thought about that. Why?

Engineer: You think about it for a while. And I want to raise another question that has been bothering me for a long time… What is “civilization“? Is sewerage really civilization? If there’s sewerage, there’s civilization. No sewerage – no civilization? Where does humanity fit into all of this?

Consultant: Wow, you’re aiming high! Or rather, digging deep. Are you planning to lay a new foundation again? You’ve already defined “love,“ maybe you’ll define “civilization“ too?

Engineer: I will. Both the definition of “civilization.“ And the definition of “human.“ I just wanted to hear your thoughts on it first.

Consultant: Alright. I’ll try to formulate it from my perspective. Civilization is a large organization of people, a large-scale organization. Everyone is united by a common mission and values. There’s a common culture and education to transmit behavioral norms: culture – in a soft form of absorption, and education – in a hard form of drilling. And, of course, a common language for communication.

Writer: And could one say the opposite? Not that civilization is a large organization, but that an organization is a small civilization?

Consultant: Well, one could say that, of course. It sounds logical, I don’t hear any contradictions. But it just seems to me that civilization is still something large, global.

Writer: Then civilization today is less about sewerage and more about globalization. There’s one global civilized world and the rest, the uncivilized world. For me, the cornerstone of this worldview is language. I’ve conducted an experiment several times with my “globalist“ friends and acquaintances, always with a similar result: first, I agree that human history is moving towards a single global civilization with a single language, and at this point, I receive full approval; but then I add that I only agree with this if that single language is Russian – and at this point, my interlocutors’ mental fuses blow… And mind you, I’m asking Russian people who speak Russian.

Consultant: Still, I can understand their logic. If people speak the same language, then communication, and indeed joint activities, become more effective.

Writer: The Tower of Babel as an example of ultimate efficiency, but of evil intent. One could say that from Noah until the construction of the Tower of Babel, there was one civilization on earth. But then the Lord confused the languages and destroyed the tower. The next stop – Apocalypse: “All nations (languages) will come and worship before You, for Your judgments have been revealed.“ (Revelation 15:4). It turns out that in Orthodoxy, many languages and peoples are God’s providence.

Consultant: And did you know that the European Parliament building in Strasbourg closely resembles the unfinished Tower of Babel from Pieter Bruegel’s painting?

Writer: I can offer a metaphor. Civilization is a ship. And what does every ship have that is also its symbol? That’s right – an ANCHOR! (In Russian – YAKOR as abbreviation: Language (YAzyk), Culture (Kultura), Education (Obrazovanie), Religion (Religiya)). Noah’s ark didn’t have an anchor: everything it needed was inside. Ultimately, the ark came to rest on land and gave rise to a proto-civilization that existed until the Babylonian confusion of tongues. Now every ship-civilization has its own anchor.

Engineer: I think now is the perfect time to voice my definitions. All three. About love and the two new ones. And then we’ll discuss everything, like before. Here they are, I’ll write them on the board so we always have them in front of us:

Consultant: I see there are also three axioms here. Are you perhaps planning to create a new science of civilizations?

Engineer: Not a science, no, but a new theory of humans, based on a review and rethinking of existing facts – yes, I am. I have several fundamental hypotheses, and I want to discuss them with you.

Writer: To be honest, I’m already a bit tired. Let’s wrap it up. By the way… so why are manhole covers round?

Engineer: It’s all about people and their safety. Round covers are made slightly larger in diameter than the wells into which people descend to service the systems located in the channels. Such a cover, no matter how you turn it, will never fall into its well. But with any other shape, it’s possible.

Consultant: Civilization takes care of the person who, in the line of duty, takes care of civilization :) Dear Writer, give me the link to your manhole covers.

Writer: Catch. See you again, my friends!

02 The Human

Consultant: A joke. Stierlitz wakes up in his cell in the morning. His head aches after yesterday. He muses: “If I’m with the Germans, then I’m SS-Standartenführer Stierlitz. If I’m with our guys, then I’m Colonel Isaev.“ The door opens, a policeman comes in and says: “Well, you really got plastered yesterday, Comrade Tikhonov!“ (Remark – Vyacheslav Tikhonov played the film role of the Soviet intelligence officer Isaev, who infiltrated under the name Stirlitz)

Engineer: :)

Writer: What, are you suggesting we surrender too?

Engineer: It also seems to me that everyone has long guessed that we are one and the same person, the author of this book.

Consultant: Surprisingly, I don’t feel like some incomplete part of anyone. Of course, formally, we are different experiences in different situations. But when I remember something, I’m sure you were there too. But when I speak – only I speak, on behalf of the whole.

Engineer: Okay, taking over control! Actually, what you’re saying resonates with me. Like in a triathlon: when it’s the road – you run, you get on the bike – you pedal, you jump into the water – you swim. And it’s all you, but – different behavior, depending on the situation.

Consultant: But if you never learned music and you’re put at a piano, you wouldn’t be able to play, would you?

Writer: Well, that’s why there aren’t thousands of us, just three… Three I’s?

Engineer: Personally, I am an engineer, I can prove it.

Consultant: And I am a consultant. You, Writer, are a writer. And we all live somewhere in the author’s psyche and on the pages of this book.

Writer: We live… Imagine you are reading a book by an author unknown to you. You mentally agree or disagree with them, and at that moment the author is living somewhere, doing something, or is already dead, but when you read – you know nothing about it, you just read the book, mentally agreeing or disagreeing with the author.

Consultant: An author lives or comes alive when their books are read. A composer lives or comes alive when their music is performed.

Engineer: The music and lyrics are traditional, performed by descendants :)

Writer: And why do We-I write this book?

Consultant: Well, firstly, it’s a point of assembly and synchronization. Unlike a triathlete, we not only have the opportunity to act differently in different situations, but also to look at the same situation differently. In my worldview, the situation was reflected in one way, in yours – in others. You know something, I know something. We lay it out, connect it, and get shared knowledge: co-knowledge. And then everyone takes this co-knowledge for themselves, and it becomes con-sciousness. Our personal and collective con-sciousness increases. As the Engineer wrote in the definition of civilization – con-sciousness (shared science) of Genesis and of oneself (itself) increases. Square, triangle, circle…

Secondly, let’s be honest, we are not three geniuses here by ourselves. Everyone stands on the shoulders of predecessors or contemporaries, with whom we also have shared knowledge. And for us, it is a responsibility and a duty – to actualize them in the consciousness of our civilization.

And thirdly, our children or great-grandchildren are reading this book now. A hundred, two hundred, a thousand years have passed. And, if we did everything right, and if the Apocalypse hasn’t happened yet, then we, dear great-grandchildren, are talking to you across time right now in Russian, and you are mentally agreeing or disagreeing. You are us. We have passed on knowledge to you through blood and language. Knowledge about a human being – an eternal theme…

Writer: I have prepared a table of authors whom we have read and to whom we refer. With dates of their lives.

Engineer: Since we’re talking about children, I suggest we try to explain things so that even a child can understand.

Writer: I promise metaphors.

Consultant: I promise diagrams and pictures. Here’s the first one for you – The Human. Psyche and body.

Writer: Within which science shall we develop the theory? Anthropology?

Consultant: I suggest we don’t spread ourselves too thin and rely on what we have personal experience in. From my side – it’s change management and organizational development in the Gestalt approach. So, more like psychology or sociology.

Engineer: If we study ancient humans by excavated tools, then modern humans should be studied by computers, cybernetic systems, and artificial intelligence. This is also more about the nervous system than about bones, nails, and hair.

Writer: I see that, as usual, we will be digging from different sides and deeply :) By the way, about excavations. There is only one science of the soul – psychology, but there are many sciences of the Earth: geo-logy, geo-graphy, geo-physics, geo-chemistry, geo-desy, geo-metry…

Engineer: As a mathematician by basic education, I responsibly declare that geo-metry is not about the Earth :)

Writer: Well then, perhaps psycho-logy is not about the Soul?

Consultant: I propose to call our research an anthropological initiative.

Engineer: Godspeed!

Writer: See you again, my friends!

03 The Cycle of Experience

Consultant: You’ve probably noticed that some people, before going on vacation somewhere, meticulously research the place beforehand, its attractions, and make lists of must-see sights. I, apparently, belong to the opposite group: minimal preparation (local currency, type of electrical outlets, weather for the upcoming week); on the spot – I completely surrender to impressions, and only upon returning, if something captivated me, do I start reading, watching, studying: I connect my personal lived experience with socially accumulated knowledge.

Last year, to my shame and happiness, I discovered the music of Sergei Rachmaninoff in the same way, and then the man himself. A great Russian composer! Amazing. While in Malaysia, my wife and I went to a classical music concert. Before that, the composer’s surname only told me that he was Russian. And then the concert began… I lost all sense of time and space. I didn’t understand what was happening in my soul. I didn’t understand why a tear was rolling down my cheek… I just sat there and dissolved into the music, flying away somewhere with it and returning. I was definitely hearing this concert for the first time, but I had the feeling that I was remembering a lot. For some reason, out of the entire symphony orchestra, my gaze most often rested on the musician who periodically hit the big drums… And a silly thought kept running through my head – “I wonder what the sheet music looks like for a performer who only hits the drum a few times during the entire concert?“

Engineer: Does the drummer in an orchestra have the same sheet music as all the other musicians?

Consultant: Obviously, but unexpectedly so, right? I was recently rewatching “Piano Concerto No. 2“ performed by Denis Matsuev and an orchestra. To be honest, Rachmaninoff is often in my headphones now. So, I noticed that in front of the drummer, and indeed in front of all the other musicians in the symphony orchestra, there were open scores, while the pianist played from memory, without sheet music. For about thirty minutes. Not the simplest, but, of course, a great musical piece.

And then an interesting thought occurred to me, which I want to discuss with you. It concerns the cycle of experience from the Gestalt approach in organizational development. I showed it to you once. It is usually drawn as a line resembling a hill (a Gaussian distribution curve), starting with “Sensation“ and ending with “Withdrawal“ passing through the stages of “Awareness“, “Energy mobilization“, “Action“, “Contact“ and “Assimilation of experience.“

So. I put the concert on to watch from the beginning. Applause. The pianist and conductor walk onto the stage. A bow. The pianist sits down at the piano, the conductor takes his position. The pianist’s hands are poised over the keys. A dead silence in the hall… The right hand comes down, the first contact happens! The first sound of the piano, the concert has begun. The music flowed, incorporating the streams of all the instruments: violins and other strings, woodwinds and brass, percussion. And in my head, the image of the first touch on the keys remained, and the word “contact“ persistently spun around. Half an hour flew by incredibly quickly, it felt, and then – the final chords… The entire orchestra in a single impulse, the pianist’s hands frantically flying across the keys. Boom-boom-boom, boom-boom-boom, boom-ba-ba-boom! The pianist’s hands soar up above the keys. A dead silence in the hall… A fraction of a second. “Bravo!“ Applause!

And in that moment, it dawned on me! “Contact,“ as it is understood in the Gestalt approach, is not the pianist’s first touch on the key, but the entire concert: from the first touch to the last! It is not a point on the cycle of experience, but a segment between points. And the same applies to all seven stages of the cycle.

But this is not the main conclusion. Usually, the cycle of experience is considered starting from “sensation.“ Which is logical, in principle. And the Gestalt approach itself once began with the study of recognizing complete images, perception. But a cycle is a cycle for a reason, to constantly repeat, maintaining the sequence of stages. So why don’t we change our approach and start considering the cycle of experience not from “Sensation,“ but from “Contact“? After all, in the example of Denis Matsuev playing Rachmaninoff’s Second Concerto from memory without sheet music, there were no random improvisations; the entire concert, as a ready, complete contact, was already in the pianist’s psyche at the moment of the first touch of the key, and only unfolded along with the playing of the orchestra and conductor from the beginning to the end of the concert! Why don’t we shift the emphasis in our approach from the Gestalt of perception to the Gestalt of behavior?

Writer: Contact = Concert?

Consultant: Quite possibly, that’s precisely why initially in Gestalt psychology there was a “Cycle of Contact“. But if we focus, emphasize the manifested action, behavior, then very roughly the entire cycle turns into:

1. “preparation of behavior“

2. “behavior in the situation“

3. “analysis of the results of behavior“

Engineer: And the result of the behavior – that’s not the last strike on the key, but the entire concert performed, right?

Consultant: I think it’s both. Each performance of the concert (read: each contact) adds to the bank of experience. And, having been analyzed, it influences the preparation and performance of the next concert (read: the preparation and performance of the next contact).

Writer: Performance… What a beautiful word: “Per-form-ance“ (forth-filling/completion). You can feel here that it’s not about the final chord, but about the complete work!

Consultant: Remember when the Engineer was talking about the moment between the past and the future – the present moment? Here and now. In the past – a bank of experience. A bank of knowledge about contacts that have occurred. The background from which Gestalts of behavior emerge. In the future – the performance of the work. But the paradox is that at the moment of initiating action (moment 1 on the cycle of experience), the concert is already prepared (contact, 1-2 on the cycle of experience)!

Engineer: To be honest, moment 2 of the Cycle of Experience (CoE) – the result, which includes the real experience of achieving it (1-2 CoE) – seems very important to me. As well as the crucial stage of analyzing the experience (2-3 CoE). After all, if the result (2 CoE) is satisfactory, then the contact (1-2 CoE) is better remembered (2-3 CoE) for use next time in a similar situation. If the result (2 CoE) is unsatisfactory, then the contact (1-2 CoE) is better changed (2-3 CoE), corrected. And if we haven’t reached the result (2 CoE) yet, then there’s nothing to discuss.

Pyotr Anokhin: “Indeed, what does the acceptance of the proposition that a reflex ends not with an action, which is only of an intermediate nature, but invariably with the achievement of a result, commit us to? Classical physiology, in developing the concept of the reflex, never analyzed this crucial point. In fact, having said ’scratch reflex,’ we stopped there, as the classical ’arc’ ended there. But even in this simple act, we usually did not analyze the subsequent stage – the cessation of the irritating action on the skin – which is the result, i.e., the main organizing factor of this entire behavioral act. <…> From the point of view of a more general assessment of behavior, we see that we are dealing here with the same regularity – human behavior in the space-time continuum appears before us as a continuum of large and small results with the indispensable assessment of each of them through afferent feedback. Thus, we have defined in the given formula the law of the construction of behavior in living beings, according to which it represents a continuous chain of results with a subsequent assessment of their adequacy.“

Consultant: This opens up a vast field for questions and discussions. “What if there’s a situation, there’s knowledge, but no experience, and this is the first experience?“ “What if there’s a situation, there’s experience, but it’s not remembered or not conscious?“ “What if there’s a situation, there’s experience, but someone else behaves differently in the same situation?“ And so on…

Writer: And I find stage 5-6 of the CoE interesting – the choice of the best co-respondence to the situation from the experience of behavior. This is about “coming to the concert with the right sheet music“ :) True, for the same drummer, it’s also important not to miss the beat, to stay in rhythm… Con-tact!

Engineer: Action in the moment must correspond to the moment of the situation. At the same time, any situation is not a single moment, but a sequence of events that can unfold over seconds, minutes, or even years. Tying shoelaces, a concert, or a hundred-year war. But each time, con-sciousness outpaces time, prepares a scenario for behavior in accordance with the anticipated scenario of the situation and launches it in order to hit the beat. Did we hit the beat or not? Did we hit it everywhere or partially? Do we need to change our behavior because we can do better in this situation, or perhaps because the situation has changed? Consultant, thank you! The cycle of experience is a most powerful tool for the analysis and synthesis of behavior!

Writer: Have you tried singing in a choir? When you hear a song for the first time, you can’t sing along at all, you just listen. Then you start to be able to sing along with the endings of the verses. Then you can sing the whole song, but every time you sing in a choir – you sing and listen carefully so as not to fall out of the choir. Con-cert. Con-tact… You know what depresses me in all of this… Where is the free will of the drummer? He can, through continuous perfection, bring his performance to the highest mastery and learn to hit the drum with such precision in timing and quality as no one before or after him. But even in this mastery, he remains a slave to the notes written by someone else…

Consultant: But written nonetheless! Sergei Vasilyevich Rachmaninoff, for example, was a pianist, a conductor, and a Russian composer! By the way, speaking of concerts, experience, and psychology. His first written concerto had an unsuccessful premiere. The composer fell into depression, composed almost nothing. Only after hypnosis sessions with the then-famous psychotherapist Nikolai Vladimirovich Dahl was the creative crisis overcome, and in 1901 Rachmaninoff wrote Piano Concerto No. 2, which is still in the repertoire of practically all pianists in the world. There was a second creative crisis, which many associate with his forced departure from Russia in 1918. A world-famous Russian composer who longed for his homeland. During the Great Patriotic War, he gave several concerts in the USA, anonymously sending all the proceeds to the Red Army fund and advising all Russian émigrés to also contribute. He transferred the proceeds from one of his concerts to the USSR Defense Fund with the words:

Sergei Rachmaninoff: “From one of many Russians, all possible aid to the Russian people in their struggle against the enemy. I want to believe, I believe in complete victory.“

Engineer: Now, 80 years later, in 2024, these words resonate in rhythm once again… Another cycle of experience.

Writer: See you again, my friends!

04 Neurology

Engineer: I wanted to talk to you again today about the human nervous system, nerves, and the connections they form. But I can’t help but digress to the amazing connections that people themselves form! Did you know that Sergei Rachmaninoff invested $5,000 (a huge sum at the time) in a technology company and was its vice president? This company was called “Sikorsky Aero Engineering Corporation,“ and its president was Igor Ivanovich Sikorsky – a Russian and American aircraft designer, inventor of the world’s first four-engine airplanes “Russky Vityaz“ and “Ilya Muromets,“ and the world’s first mass-produced helicopter. Igor Sikorsky, like Sergei Rachmaninoff, was born in the Russian Empire, in the city of Kyiv. And they met in the USA in 1923.

Writer: The relics of Ilya Muromets rest in Kyiv, in the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra.

Engineer: Yes, I saw them personally when we were in the Lavra caves. And my grandmother is from Kyiv, although then the empire was called the USSR. And two of my grandfathers were military aviation engineers. And my father, in general, is a fighter pilot. Maybe that’s why I remembered Sikorsky?

Consultant: Whatever thread you pull, that’s the tangle that will unravel. You were going to talk about the nervous system. Could I ask you to try to unravel this tangle not from inputs to outputs, but the other way around: from behavior to perception? With a focus not from the outside in, but from the inside out.

Writer: If an egg is broken from the outside, life ends. If an egg is broken from the inside, life begins!

Engineer: I’ll try. We’ve already talked about different behaviors depending on the situation. Imagine this: a small child is brought to a neurologist for the first time. The doctor takes his little hammer, approaches the unsuspecting child sitting on a chair, and hits him on the knee with the hammer. The leg jerks, everything is fine – the knee-jerk reflex has been checked. But the second time, the picture will be completely different! It seems like the same doctor, the same hammer, and the same child. But the child is no longer sitting quietly on the chair, but, upon seeing the hammer, tries to hide behind a parent and not let the doctor near. Different behavior! What has changed? The child has changed, or rather – his attitude to the situation has changed, because he remembered how unpleasant it was the previous time. And now behavior is determined not only by the neurons involved in the knee-jerk reflex, but also by other neurons in which the situation and past experience of interaction were remembered. At the same time, it must be understood that even the second time (if the child is held down) the leg will jerk when hit with the hammer. If a child (and an adult too) is sleeping, the knee-jerk reflex will also work perfectly. Here it is important to highlight two sources of preparation and initiation of behavior: unconscious and conscious. The child did not learn the knee-jerk reflex but inherited it from his parents. But this is very simple, one-step innate behavior, and one should not think that all others are just as simple. Take breathing, for example.

Pyotr Anokhin: “First of all, it must be noted that the formation of a complex of effector excitations in the motor part of the respiratory center is the result of the synthesis of many diverse afferentations coming to it. The respiratory center receives afferentation from the lungs, airways, for example, the trachea. It also receives humoral excitation from the level of partial pressure of CO2 and O2 in the blood. <…> As we have seen, the respiratory center sends to the respiratory muscles such a quantity of excitations that precisely corresponds to the integration of all afferent excitations that have reached it, i.e., it accurately reflects the body’s need for a certain volume of air (K.D. Gruzdev). And this, in turn, means that the alveoli expand in full accordance with the volume of contraction of the respiratory muscles, and, consequently, the respiratory center must receive from the lung, i.e., from the results of this inhalation, such feedback afferentation that is quantitatively precisely correlated with the efferent excitations sent by the respiratory center itself to the periphery, to the respiratory muscles. This closes the circle of the self-regulating respiratory system.“

Engineer: And do you know what is most amazing about this whole complex of neurons in the respiratory system? At the moment of a child’s birth, it is fully formed, but it only starts working at the very moment of birth, with the first baby cry! That is, the child in the womb already “knows“ how to breathe, but only gets the first experience with the first inhale and first exhale.

Sean Gaffney: “Changes are long in the making but happen quickly.“

Consultant: On the one hand, breathing seems more complex than the knee-jerk reflex, but on the other hand, it’s quite similar: I breathe unconsciously, but consciously I can hold my breath or start breathing faster. The muscles are the same, but the commands come from different centers from two different sides.

Writer: Allow me to burst into your fascinating dialogue with my metaphor! You constantly mention “centers.“ What if we imagine any such center as a city center? Cars drive to the city center, then they drive away from the center. In the city center is “kilometer zero.“ This means that when you are driving on a road and see a post with a blue sign and a number, it is a “kilometer marker.“ It indicates how many kilometers are left to the city center. And on the other side, it will also indicate how many kilometers you have traveled from your starting point, which may be the destination for cars moving towards you. I’m not sure if distances in the psyche can be measured in kilometers, but you can substitute the number of neurons on the path for kilometers.

Engineer: Roads with cars, or canals with ships – that’s more about the circulatory system. Neurons send and receive signals.

Pyotr Anokhin: “Consequently, the very fact of the appearance of “signaling“ and “temporal connections“ can be recognized as one of the most ancient regularities in the development of living matter. It is in this sense that one should understand I. P. Pavlov’s expression “temporal connections are a universal phenomenon of nature.“ <…> Therefore, naturally, we must ask ourselves: what characteristic of the conditioned reflex is most typical for it, defining it? Of all its possible qualities, the quality of “anticipation,“ or “signaling“ about upcoming events in the external world (“anticipatory activity,“ according to I. P. Pavlov) is its most decisive quality. Neither variability, nor strength, nor acquiredness, etc., can compare in purpose with this biological quality of it. Precisely because animals have the opportunity to prepare by signal for the still upcoming links of sequentially developing events, it has become the central point of progressive evolution. And its discovery is the greatest merit of our teacher I. P. Pavlov.“

Engineer: Imagine that one neuron is a signal tower. There are twenty such watchtowers in the Moscow Kremlin, each of which is for signaling (sensory (afferent) neurons) and for repelling external attacks (motor (efferent) neurons). But a watchtower does not work by itself; there must be a watchman on each tower.

Engineer: So, a signal tower plus a signalman on it is one neuron. Now imagine that there are 100 billion such neurons in the nervous system! That’s how many neurons a newborn child has, or as many people as have ever lived on Earth (if, of course, scientists are not lying – in both the first and second cases). 100 billion signal towers, located over a large territory, some of which are built into the “fortress walls“ of a person, but most of them inside transmit signals to each other: to the centers, from the centers. And on each signal tower – a signalman and a signal fire. The fire, or smoke from the fire, is “visible“ from a great distance both day and night. I put “visible“ in quotation marks, as a universal way of receiving a signal. Because there are sensory neurons of the sense organs that see, hear, smell, touch, taste. But then they give a signal, and other neurons in the chain “see“ this signal.

Engineer: Let’s consider one neuron (one of 100 billion) as such a signal tower. How can we reason about this?

– 

a signal tower needs a constantly replenished supply of firewood (or oil) to light a signal fire;

– 

one tower can only give one signal, but this tower can “see“ signals from many other towers;

– 

there are towers that look outward (sensory neurons), and there are towers that look at other towers (interneurons, transmitting neurons);

– 

there are towers that light a fire, not for a signal, but to boil tar and pour it on the enemy’s head outside the walls (motor neurons);

– 

there are central towers that make final decisions (neurons of “kilometer zero“);

– 

on each tower, the fire is managed by a signalman who remembers everything, learns all his life, and decides when exactly to light his fire, depending on the behavior of other signal towers in his line of sight;

– 

if there is heavy fog, the signal may not be visible (for example, a pain signal does not reach the brain during opioid intoxication)

– 

and so on… But some of the most interesting towers are those that can launch a “rainbow“! Of course, in the real world, there were no such towers. But in our world of neural towers, there are endocrine towers that, through glands, launch rainbows (hormones) into the sky: “happiness“ hormones (serotonin, dopamine, endorphin, oxytocin, …), “fear“ hormones (cortisol, adrenaline, norepinephrine), and so on, depending on the situation. Different hormones – different rainbows (the stripes alternate differently, like on national flags). And why rainbows, you ask? It’s very simple – there are billions of signal towers, and if it is necessary to notify a large number of them simultaneously about some important situation (to mobilize or give a signal to remember the current situation), then the most effective way is to launch a rainbow into the sky that many will see (release hormones into the bloodstream).

Consultant: So, in the case of the boy at the neurologist’s, one signal tower lights up from the hammer blow, another watchtower sees this signal and immediately extends the muscle. Meanwhile, these lights are visible on other towers, which transmit the signal inwards. And somewhere these signals meet with signals that came from the optic nerves and were transformed into a picture of “a man in a white coat with a hammer.“ They meet and combine into one situation. A rainbow is launched, the situation is remembered by many neurons for the future.

Writer: Just some fiery waves, going from the periphery to the center and back, if you look at this whole multi-billion tower system from above!

Engineer: And if identical waves from the “signal towers of the left ear“ arrive a little earlier than the same waves from the “signal towers of the right ear,“ then the towers of the auditory center will calculate the direction from which the sound is coming.

Writer: Or on the central auditory towers, they will “suddenly“ pay attention to the rhythmically lighting up and going out lights – the ticking of a wall clock. Although they were ticking all the time, the signalmen were busy analyzing brighter lights from other towers.

Engineer: Of course, this is all a metaphor. But it’s a metaphor that allows us to make hypotheses that can then be experimentally tested. Although now, with modern equipment, scientists and doctors can “look“ into the nervous system and see how millions of neurons light up and go out, how waves of excitation roll through the layers of the psyche in different directions. Can you imagine how difficult it was to “look“ into the nervous system in ancient times? Only 150-100 years ago, our great physiologists: Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, Alexei Alexeyevich Ukhtomsky – studied the nervous system in spinal frogs, in which, for physiological research, the connection of the spinal cord with the brain was severed by a transverse transection. Such a frog lay very calmly, and the reflex activity of vertebrate animals could be studied on it. Pavlov’s genius was that he began to study the behavior of dogs that had not undergone such an operation, and thus to observe the entire nervous system as a whole! Nikolai Alexandrovich Bernstein studied man and his psyche through movements and dexterity, Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky looked into human thinking through speech, Alexander Romanovich Luria also studied the connection between consciousness and language, Leontiev Alexei Nikolaevich connected activity, consciousness, and personality.

Pyotr Anokhin: “The work of our laboratory, carried out over the past 10 years, gives us more and more reason to think that the functional systems of the body are formed on the basis of two factors that are different in nature – architectural and energetic. Both these principles of the central nervous system’s operation are organically combined in the formation of a wide variety of functional systems with different final adaptive effects. <…> From the enormous variety of innate and life-experience-created functional systems of the body, which constitute its primary value, the energy factor helps “bring to the stage“ precisely this, and not another, activity. In these complex relationships, the initiative role in when and which functional system to “release onto the stage“ undoubtedly remains with the cerebral cortex, where afferent synthesis takes place. <…> Now it is required to understand: by what mechanisms this increased food excitability turns into a “drive requiring satisfaction.“ By what mechanisms does this drive form the goal of a certain behavior and the realization of this goal in specific behavioral acts? We must also understand the physiological mechanisms of the formation of what I. P. Pavlov called “basic drives.“ It is impossible not to recognize as a huge shortcoming of our work that this main driver, the impetus for purposeful actions, remains outside the field of our research interests. Such a phenomenon can only be explained by the fact that I. P. Pavlov boldly posed the question of the reflex of the goal when the physiology of the nervous system as a whole was not yet ready for its resolution. We did not know, for example, on the basis of what specific physiological processes a person’s life goal is maintained at a high energy level for a long time, absorbing, and often subordinating, all his other activities. At present, we know this physiological basis. It has a universal activating effect on the higher levels of the nervous system and can energetically support ever wider associative connections. As is now known, the substrate of this “blind force,“ in the words of I. P. Pavlov, is located in the hypothalamus and reticular formation of the brainstem (Magoun and Moruzzi 1942, Bremer 1953, et al.). Thus, the purely energetic side of the long-term maintenance of a once-set goal of action in a dominant state currently has a fairly convincing explanation. At this point, the problem of the reflex of the goal is very closely related to the problem of the dominant, developed in our domestic physiology by A. A. Ukhtomsky.“

Engineer: We’ve talked a lot about energy factors today, I suggest we discuss architectural factors next time.

Consultant: Agreed.

Writer: See you again, my friends!

05 Architecture

Engineer: So, let’s smoothly transition from discussing energy factors to considering architectural factors. Smoothly, because before we start discussing the architecture of the human nervous system, I wanted to tell you an interesting fact from the world of technology, related to both energy and architectural factors. We’ll be talking about the watch battery. This miniature power element, resembling a button or a pill, can now be found not only in wristwatches but everywhere: in toys, musical books and cards, remote controls, trinkets, and even in shoes that light up when you walk :) But initially, such batteries were used specifically in wristwatches, which determined their flat cylindrical shape. Why isn’t the shape square, or triangular, but specifically round? This is due to the architecture of wristwatches. In classic pocket watches, which are already 250 years old, and which at the end of the 19th century migrated from the pocket to the arm of a soldier, there are only three main interconnected systems:

1. Energy source

2. Oscillating system (balance wheel)

3. A system of gears connecting the first system to the second (with hour, minute, and sometimes second hands on the gears).

So, initially, the energy source in wearable watches was a wound spring, rotating a drum with small teeth, into which it was placed. A feature of such watches is that they need to be wound regularly (compressing the spring), otherwise the watch stops. So, they came up with the idea of replacing the spring with a battery. And since all the other systems of the watch remained architecturally in their places, the battery had to be made in such a shape and size that it would fit in place of the flat cylinder with the spring.

Writer: And did you know that “spring“ (the mechanism) and “spring“ (the season) are written and read the same way in English? There’s something to that. The spring in a watch, like spring in the year, is a source of stored and unfolding energy.

Engineer: Let’s take a step from technology to humans. But first, another digression necessary to clarify the concepts of “boundary“, “internal“, and “external“ in relation to living beings. We discussed the “pill“ battery, and now imagine a real pill. Ascorbic acid, for example. Imagine that you are holding it tightly in your hand. From your point of view, is the pill inside you or outside?

Consultant: Outside.

Engineer: Now, mentally put the pill in your mouth. And now?

Consultant: Well, it seems to be inside now. Although, to be sure, I would swallow it.

Engineer: Swallow it!

Consultant: Done! Swallowed it. Now the pill is definitely inside.

Engineer: Yes and no. A human, like many other animals, such as a worm, is a tube. And the pill, having been swallowed, simply began a journey from the entrance to the exit :) The pill is designed so that it will, of course, dissolve and be absorbed by the body. But if it were a raw bean seed, it would most likely survive. Even more so – it would defend itself: beans contain phytic acid in their shell, which is not digested or absorbed by the body. Moreover, it blocks the absorption of magnesium, calcium, iron, and zinc in the intestines, and also interferes with the absorption of fats and proteins by blocking digestive enzymes in the stomach.

Writer: But on the other hand, thanks to all of the above, some gourmets can afford to enjoy the most expensive coffee in the world, kopi luwak :)

Engineer: I brought up this example to show that “internal“ and “external“ may not be as obvious as they seem at first glance, and that inside a person there are also boundaries with the external world. So, let’s return to the human nervous system. To its architecture. I have a hypothesis, the assessment of which by a strict reader may vary from “nonsense“ or “everyone has known this for a long time“ to “this is a Nobel Prize!“

Firstly, it is already clear that all neurons can be divided architecturally into at least two levels in the human psyche:

1. The area of preparation and implementation of human behavior;

      2. The area of receiving and storing knowledge about the surrounding Genesis and about oneself.

The first area includes nerve complexes whose neurons send signals to muscles and glands (outputs). The second area includes all sensory organs, whose neurons are located on the border between humans and Genesis (inputs).

Consultant: A joke. The Gestapo blocked all the exits, but Stierlitz left through the entrance…

Writer: :)

Engineer: So, I propose to identify a third area in the human psyche, by dividing the second area into two parts. The third area will include the deep layers of the psyche that have no direct connection with the external world. Imagine the area of receiving and storing knowledge about the surrounding Genesis and about oneself as an egg.

Engineer: The egg white perceives the external world. It “feels“ light, heat. And through the layers of egg white, light and heat reach the yolk. The yolk, it turns out, also “feels“ the external world, but the paradox is that the external world for the yolk is the egg white… And the paradox of paradoxes is that we can also assert that the yolk, in turn, is the external world for the egg white!

Engineer: So, we get a three-part architecture of the human psyche:

1. Area No. 1 – preparation and implementation of human behavior;

      2. Area No. 2 – direct reception (and storage) of knowledge about the surrounding Genesis and about oneself (“egg white“);

      3. Area No. 3 – indirect reception (and storage) of knowledge about the surrounding Genesis and about oneself (“yolk“).

You can call them parts, zones, levels, floors, blocks, modules, areas of the psyche. It doesn’t matter. What matters is that there are three of them and each of them is a group of interconnected neurons (neural networks). The first two interact directly with the surrounding world (Genesis). The third does not interact directly with the external world, but interacts directly with the previous two. The sum of all neurons in all three areas constitutes the entire human psyche.

Alexander Luria: “This block is located in the anterior parts of the brain and includes its frontal lobes: it does not provide cortical tone, does not receive information from the external world, does not process or store it. It is connected to the external world only through the apparatus of the second block and can only work successfully if the first block provides the necessary level of cortical wakefulness.

However, its function is crucially important: the third brain block is a powerful apparatus that allows for the formation and retention of intentions, the formulation of action programs, the regulation of their course, and the control of their successful execution. This is the block of programming, regulation, and control of human activity.“

Consultant: At this point, I feel like my brain’s egg white is already cooked, and the yolk is still soft-boiled, but just a little more and it will be hard-boiled… This all needs to be processed. I suggest we take a break.

Writer: See you again, my friends!

06 Worldview

Consultant: Here’s what I was thinking… You, Writer, write poems and stories. You, Engineer, write computer programs. And I, as a philosopher, probably write a worldview…

Writer: If it’s “in motion“, then it becomes a motion picture. For a 5D cinema, or better yet, for a virtual reality cinema. Although, why do we need virtual reality if we can’t even experience much of actual reality in our lifetime?

Engineer: Have you ever noticed that when you go to an unknown place, the way back always seems shorter? This is because on the way back, you already have a map (read: picture) in your head, recorded on the way there, and it’s always faster to go with a map than without one. Moreover, this is true even if you go “there“ using a navigator or a paper map (an external map), because on the way back, the map is already internal, given to a person through experience. The only “but“ is that you first have to get somewhere. And in this case, the internal map can be used repeatedly, refining it each time you retrace the path. Right up to the point of automatism, when it’s hard to even remember how you got there if someone asks. How different this is from the first time, both in terms of time and the effort spent on attention. And yet, this is just one road from point A to point B :)

Engineer: There’s also a downside to the automation of constructing an internal worldview. Motorists will understand. For example, a road was always two-way, and then one day they made it one-way and put up a “do not enter“ sign. But drivers, for some time, automatically drive under the prohibition sign. In general, of course, it’s interesting how a person perceives, records, and rewrites the world around them onto their internal picture throughout their entire life… Oh, by the way! About pictures… You know that in a computer, pictures can be stored in different formats. It’s difficult for an ordinary person to understand how they differ. At most – by size and quality. Some are large in size – they take up a lot of computer memory, others are smaller, often without significant loss in quality. What is a picture on a computer screen? A set of glowing dots (pixels) of various colors. If the picture is rectangular, say, 1280 by 853, then that’s 1,091,840 dots, each of which has a color, and this information must be saved for subsequent reproduction if necessary.

Consultant: A joke. Two Jews are arguing. One is trying to convince the other. Is white a color? – It is! And is black a color? – It is! So, I did sell you a color TV!

Writer: :)

Engineer: Well, even if the picture is black and white. In this case, the color can be encoded with 1 bit: if the color is white – zero, if black – one. But even so, the specified picture will take up more than 1 million bits of memory if you save every pixel. This is exactly the format “BMP“. Then the “JPEG“ format appeared, which took up less space because it used lossy compression algorithms but preserved image quality. But the most interesting thing wasn’t the size of the pictures, but the way they were transmitted over the network when the Internet first appeared, and we used slow analog modems to transmit data over telephone lines. A “BMP“ file was transmitted in pieces (pixels and lines) from top to bottom. You could say the picture was assembled from rectangular puzzles. Everything that loaded was clear, but if the connection dropped, the picture was displayed partially. And, if the most interesting part was at the bottom, you had to start loading again and wait for the full picture. But a “JPEG“ picture started loading completely, but in layers. Although initially the image was blurry, with each new layer it became clearer and clearer. It seems to me that the same principle is preserved now: if the connection is bad, then a blurry (and small in size) picture comes first. Technically, there can be very different algorithms. As an example, if you remove every second pixel, the picture will become twice as small, although what is depicted on it will be easily recognizable.

Consultant: A fully finished picture is cut into puzzles. But I’ve never seen artists paint that way. Their style is more like “JPEG.“ First, they sketch the outlines, then they apply layers of paint.

Engineer: I also remembered about printers that print on paper. An inkjet printer draws an image line by line. But a color laser printer has rotating drums inside that apply the image to the paper in layers.

Consultant: So how does a person paint a worldview: in pieces, or all at once, adding details as they appear? What does a person have in their head at birth: a blank slate or a contour map that just needs to be colored in? …

Writer: Allow me to offer a metaphor. Imagine a “Train of Life“ that travels through the World and makes stops. Each stop is a situation. Each passenger is a person who gets off at the stops, takes out an easel and brushes, and starts painting. A landscape, a portrait… Each passenger has their own carriage where they store finished paintings, unfinished paintings, and empty canvases.

Consultant: So it’s not one big worldview, but many small ones? I propose we discuss a person and their paintings using this metaphor.

– 

encountering the same situation (getting off at the same stop), a person doesn’t paint a new picture, but takes out the one they painted here before. They correct something, add to it, if necessary;

– 

if there wasn’t enough time, and the picture isn’t finished, then it’s unlikely to be put away far, but placed near the exit so it’s easier to find;

– 

over time, there are fewer empty canvases and more fully painted pictures;

– 

one picture is painted at a time;

– 

different people paint the same situation differently;

– 

painting is labor, so sometimes there are “good enough“ pictures;

– 

a person physically cannot be at all the stops in the entire Universe at all times, and in their carriage, there are only those pictures that they painted themselves.

Engineer: Allow me then to reflect on how this metaphor applies to the model of the human psyche that I presented to you earlier. I’ll try to use my philosophy as a method. A method of analysis and synthesis. I remind you of the division of the human psyche into three areas:

1. Area No. 1 – preparation and implementation of human behavior;

2. Area No. 2 – direct acquisition (and storage) of knowledge about the surrounding Genesis and oneself.

3. Area No. 3 – indirect acquisition (and storage) of knowledge about the surrounding Genesis and oneself (deep layers of the psyche, having no direct connection with the external world).

Let’s place the artist, along with the carriage and paintings, in Area No. 2, and call him the “painter“. In Area No. 3, we’ll settle an “art critic“ who studies the “painter’s“ pictures, understands and evaluates them, and issues reviews. And in Area No. 1, we’ll have a “traveler“ who uses the “painter’s“ pictures and the “art critic’s“ reviews to build maps of reality and use them in their travels around the world. The main thing is not to forget that they all “live“ inside the psyche of one person!

Engineer: The “art critic“ does not perceive the external world directly, does not leave the carriage, so to speak. And his compartment has no windows. But he has the opportunity, unlike the “painter“ (who is busy with one, at most, a few pictures at a time), to study many works of art in the carriage-museum. This allows the “art critic“ to build a single, consistent worldview! It’s worth noting that when we talk about the “painter’s“ pictures, these are not pictures in the usual sense of the word. The “painter“ perceives with all senses simultaneously both the external world and the internal states of a person. All this, and in dynamics, like the melody of a concert, is laid onto the canvas of the “picture“ of the situation. The “traveler“ tries each time to choose the best of the maps (pictures or reviews), and if the map is not accurate, the “painter“ has to repaint the pictures, and the “art critic“ has to reconsider the reviews. At the same time, the paradox is that the pictures painted by the “painter“ are seen only by the “art critic“ and the “traveler.“ Other people never see them. If a person wants to show another person a picture of a situation or a collection assembled and described by the “art critic,“ then in this case, the “traveler“ needs to depict it for others… But it may happen that the “traveler“ is quite a poor artist! And this attempt to transfer a picture from the inner world to the outer world is first seen by the “painter,“ and then by the “art critic“… And some pictures (and maybe many of them) will never see the light of day.

Consultant: So it turns out like this:

– 

there is a world that is “everything at all times“ – Genesis;

– 

there are situational worldviews, painted and accumulated by “painters“;

– 

there are connected, consistent worldviews, assembled by “art critics“;

– 

there are “travelers“ who interact with Genesis, verifying and refining these pictures.

Writer: Colleagues-art critics! I suggest we let the paints dry on our Worldview, go wash our brushes, and rest a bit :)

See you again, my friends!

07 Periscope

Consultant: At first, it was so beautiful: a ship-civilization! But when we got to the human being, it turns out that some are sitting in the hold without portholes. And in general, it’s not a ship, but some kind of submarine! And we don’t see objects directly, but on radar monitors connected to our sense organs!

Engineer: So what if it’s a submarine! For a specific person, in the context of my concept of the three-component psyche, it’s even more accurate. How does a captain observe a combat situation without surfacing? That’s right – through a periscope. And a periscope is, essentially, two mirrors. A double reflection!

Pyotr Anokhin: “The reflective process unfolds in such a way that an external object, through a continuous series of physical and physiological processes, is, as it were, assimilated by the organism, i.e., it is reflected first in its structures, and then in consciousness. This order of development of reflective processes leads to the natural conclusion that, in essence, this process, from stage to stage, is formed in accordance with the theory of information transmission. <…> Information transmission in living and technical objects usually occurs with an exceptionally large number of specific links; however, it obeys one important law: there must be precise and adequate informational equivalence between the initial and final links of this transmission. <…> Here it should be noted that the decisive condition for encompassing the parameters of the external world is the throughput capacity of our sense organs, which have a very definite range of sensitivity. <…> Thus, the external real world has many more parameters from which a real image of the external world could be composed (reflected), but the ecological characteristics of each animal and its individual evolution contributed to the development of particular sensors that perceive particular parameters. This set of parameters ultimately determines the reflected images of reality in different animals: a nocturnal moth “sees“ a bat with the help of nervous processes caused by a peculiar ultrasonic vibration; the image of the general situation for a cockroach in the dark is determined by the different temperatures of bodies, and, consequently, by different infrared radiation. As for humans, the world they reflect is much richer in terms of the number of physical parameters of the external world, and this ensures the creation of a more complete and detailed image of the external world. It is this process of forming the latter synthetic stage that is the subject of special attention in the gnoseological approach to the theory of reflection.“

Writer: I remember from childhood the Soviet electronic arcade game “Sea Battle“. The little ships floated there, and you had to launch torpedoes, aiming not at the ship itself, but slightly ahead of it, to hit it. Just like in real life.

Engineer: That’s already an anticipatory reflection of reality!

Pyotr Anokhin: “Several years ago, I already presented our concept regarding the “anticipatory reflection of reality“ in a more detailed form. It is to this work that I refer readers for a more detailed acquaintance with this concept. Now I have only briefly outlined those new considerations that we have been developing in this direction over the past few years. <…> For the development of life, the cardinal condition was not a simple sequence of events, but a periodically or rhythmically repeating sequence of individual fragments from the infinite continuum of phenomena in the overall picture of the world. Only under these conditions did the adaptation of the living to external events and the progress of its material organization become possible. Naturally, the reflective activity of the organism also acquired a special stimulus from rhythmically repeating phenomena for the formation of stable structures. The temporal structure of the world actually became such that, in its essence, having shorter and longer sequentially repeating phenomena, it contributed to the emergence of life itself. Such constant cycles as autumn, winter, spring, summer, or morning, day, evening, night, were fundamental developing cycles, and this contributed to the adaptation and consolidation of primary living organizations. If we analyze our entire life, then, in essence, the process of repeated impacts of world events on our nervous system will turn out to be the most significant temporal factor. We walk along the same street many times, many of the same objects repeatedly act on us, and all this constitutes the main temporal factor of the reflective activity of our brain. <…> In other words, with the appearance of living substance, a fundamentally new type of reflective activity arose – the macroworld, through a whole series of transformations over long intervals of time, is reflected in the microworld, i.e., in the rapid molecular rearrangements of the protoplasm of a living cell. From this follows the conclusion that living protoplasm acquires the property of accumulating informational messages from the external world, condensing them in micro-interval connections. <…> Thanks to the multiple, and for some external phenomena, perhaps even multi-million, repetition of the same series of molecular rearrangements, very favorable conditions were created for the reproduction of the entire series of molecular rearrangements in the protoplasm under the action of only the initial link in the chain of external events. Thanks to the chemical coupling of a whole series of processes, conditions were created for the reproduction of the entire chain of protoplasmic processes from the initial impulse from the external world. Protoplasm acquired the ability, thanks to the development of its molecular processes, to anticipate in time and space the regular course of successive events in the external world. Several years ago, we called this property of living organisms the anticipatory reflection of reality (Anokhin, 1962), and this ability of the nervous system, stated much earlier, was called “anticipatory excitation“ (Anokhin, 1957). Broadly assessing this property of living substance, we must say that organisms, having acquired the ability to anticipate the course of external events, thereby began to adapt with the greatest benefit to future, often dangerous, phenomena of the external world long before these phenomena would take place. <…> I will not dwell here on the fact that the most perfect form of this peculiar “peeking“ into the future is the activity of the nervous system. <…> It is precisely thanks to these brain, mainly neurochemical, mechanisms that the reflection of the external world in consciousness has become the highest point of the reflective function of the organism. This is the reflection of reality that the classics of dialectical-materialist philosophy spoke about. Neurophysiological analysis of brain function shows that the reflection of the external world actually cannot be otherwise, non-anticipatory, because from an informational point of view, every external influence on the organism inevitably mobilizes in the nervous system also the molecular experience of the past associated with a given situation or with a given irritant – a stimulus. This circumstance allows the brain to unite the past with the present and, on this basis, to predict in detailed parameters the onset of future events. We therefore believe that the concept of anticipatory reflection of reality is only a creative development of the basic propositions of Lenin’s theory of reflection. At the same time, the reflective process itself, which most accurately transmits all the parameters of the objective world around us, is a product of the evolutionary development of animal organization over many millions of years. And therefore, in every act of reflection of an adult human, we have a genuine organic clot of the reflective experience of generations and present reality. We have uncovered those regularities on the basis of which the entire experience of reflection of the external world by organisms, fixed in phylogeny by heredity, returns again to this same external world through the development of animal embryos. This regularity of “fitting“ the reflective abilities of the organism to its ecology we once called “systemogenesis“. Systemogenesis serves as a genuine instrument of evolution, which acts as an intermediary in the transmission of the historical accumulation of the reflective activity of ancestors to their descendants in exact accordance with their specific ecological factors. Here we encounter one of the strongest arguments of the theory of reflection: with the reflection of objective reality in the structure and function of countless generations of animals, i.e., with the historical accumulation of reflective experience (of generations).“

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