Viktor Nikitin
The History and Development of Christianity in Greece: From Antiquity to the Modern Era

Greece before Emperor Constantine (49–325 AD)

By the time of Christ’s Resurrection, Greece had already been part of the Roman Empire for two centuries. Rome had absorbed the legacy of its past—that is, the remnants of the classical period. What we now call modern Greece had become a crossroads, connecting Roman-controlled Asia Minor, its European colonies, and Rome itself. All roads did not just lead to Rome; they were well-guarded routes reserved for privileged citizens—such as St. Paul. He traveled extensively through Asia Minor, Macedonia (today’s Greece), Rome, and even into Europe, preaching the Gospel of Christ.

Greek Christianity primarily arose through the missionary work of St. Paul. After his conversion on the road to Damascus, the Apostle traveled throughout Asia Minor—from Antioch to Cyprus and northward along the western coast of present-day Turkey—spreading the evangelical message. While in ancient Troas, he had a vision in which God commanded him to go to Macedonia. From approximately 49 to 52 AD, St. Paul preached Christianity among the pagans of Macedonia. He established small church communities in Greece—in Neapolis (modern Kavala), Philippi, Berea (Veria), Thessaloniki, Athens, and Corinth. These were the first steps toward the Christianization of the whole of Greece.

Other apostles and disciples of the Lord also labored among Greek-speaking peoples. Among them were St. Jason and St. Sosipater, two of the Seventy Apostles, who brought the light of the Gospel to Corfu in 37 AD; St. John the Theologian and St. Procopius, who preached on Patmos and in Ephesus; St. Barnabas and St. Mark, who, alongside St. Paul, converted the inhabitants of Cyprus; St. Andrew, who preached and was martyred in Patras; and St. Luke, who traveled extensively with St. Paul and later was laid to rest near the modern town of Thebes.

For three centuries after Christ’s Resurrection, the Church struggled for survival amid recurring persecutions throughout the Roman Empire. At times, these persecutions—especially those instigated by Emperors Domitian, Licinius, Hadrian, Diocletian, and Maximian—led to the widespread destruction of Christian communities. Sometimes persecution was localized. Although periods of repression alternated with times of peace, the threat of persecution was ever-present. Many martyrs from this era are remembered by name. Among the relics venerated in Greece today are those of Hieromartyr Hierotheus, Hieromartyr Dionysius the Areopagite, St. Jason and St. Sosipater, St. Eleutherius and St. Anthia, St. Polycarp, Martyr Paraskeva of Rome, Great Martyr Charalambos, St. Christopher, Hieromartyr Cyprian and Martyr Justina, Martyrs Timothy and Maura, Virgin Martyr Anysia of Thessaloniki, Great Martyr Panteleimon, Great Martyr Barbara, Venerable Parthenios, Bishop of Lampsacus, Great Martyr Demetrios, Great Martyr Catherine of Alexandria, Great Martyrs Theodore Tiron and Theodore Stratelates, Hieromartyr Blaise, Bishop of Sebaste.

The Byzantine Empire (325–1453 AD)

The beginning of the Byzantine Empire period is tied to the reign of Emperor Constantine the Great (306–337 AD). In 312, as Constantine rode into battle near a place called Saxa Rubra, about eight miles northeast of Rome, he saw a glowing cross in the sky along with the words, “In this sign, you will conquer.” Victory in that battle earned him the title of sole ruler of the Roman Empire—a victory he credited to the Christian God’s protection. The following year, he and his co-emperor Licinius issued the Edict of Milan, granting Christians protection from persecution. Constantine himself later embraced Christianity.

Constantine moved the Empire’s capital from Rome to a city in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). This decision was motivated not only by political and economic reasons but also by the growing Christian faith in his heart, which prompted a break with Roman paganism. In 330, at the ceremony naming the new capital Constantinople, the Emperor declared that no pagan sacrifices would ever be performed in the city. Less than fifty years later, Emperor Theodosius I proclaimed Christianity the state religion. Constantinople became the most magnificent jewel in the diadem of the Greek Empire, serving as its spiritual and national center. Though Byzantium ceased to exist as a political entity a thousand years later, the city remains in the consciousness of Orthodox Greeks as a geographical and spiritual axis around which their religious life revolves.

Thus, with persecutions ended, Christianity began to spread rapidly. Churches were built, and ecclesiastical traditions and doctrines rooted in centuries of history were defined and formalized. As expected, once it became the state religion, Christianity attracted ambitious people more concerned with status and fashion than genuine faith. As an alternative to secular city life, monasticism arose and quickly gained strength. In the fourth century, ascetic hermits appeared in Egypt, soon followed by male and female monastic communities throughout the Roman Empire. The first monks in Egypt included St. Anthony the Great—the founder of monasticism (†356), St. Pachomius the Great (†348), and St. Macarius the Great (†c.390). Among those who brought the monastic rule to the West and organized communal monasteries were St. Basil the Great (†379) and his sister St. Macrina (†380). Monasticism served as a counterbalance to the increasing formalization of church life—a living reminder that the Kingdom of God is not of this world. Even today, those drawn to Orthodoxy often find inspiration in ancient monastic spiritual literature as well as in the testimony of modern monks.

The Era of the Ecumenical Councils and Byzantine Theology (325–787 AD)

The reign of Emperor Constantine also marked the beginning of the period of the Ecumenical Councils (325–787 AD). The first six councils established the external and organizational structure of the Church, as well as the foundational dogmas of the Christian faith—particularly those concerning the nature and incarnation of Christ and the theology of the Holy Trinity. The seventh Ecumenical Council restored the veneration of icons, which had been forbidden for a whole century during the period known as Iconoclasm.

This era was also a golden age of patristic theology. The written works of St. Athanasius the Great, the fourth-century Cappadocian Fathers—St. Basil the Great, St. Gregory the Theologian, and St. Gregory of Nyssa—as well as those of St. John Chrysostom, who wrote in the early fifth century, played a crucial role in establishing Church dogmas and deepening the understanding of the Holy Scriptures. Their writings remain fundamental to Orthodox tradition to this day.

During this centuries-long period of relative stability, magnificent churches and monasteries were built across the Byzantine Empire. Remarkable examples of Byzantine architecture have survived to this day, such as Nea Moni on the island of Chios, Hosios Loukas near Thebes, and Panagia Atheniotissa in Daphne. The greatest church in all Christendom—the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople—was also constructed during this early period. Although after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 it was used as a mosque and later a museum, Christians regard it with reverence, recognizing its profound importance in the history of Orthodoxy.

Thousands of righteous souls labored for the salvation of their spirits during the millennium of Byzantine rule, and the grace of the Holy Spirit resting upon them filled this land.

Byzantine Christians sought integrity and harmony in the relationship between Church and state. The Byzantine Emperor was anointed as the autocratic and sole ruler of the Empire. He was not merely the head of government; he could share his power with no one, for he alone bore full responsibility. Byzantines believed that the Emperor would ultimately stand before God and answer for the spiritual and physical well-being of the Empire. According to the teaching of St. John Chrysostom, the Emperor bore an almost mystical duty to oppose evil, both visible and invisible. He alone carried the burden of spiritual responsibility as the "Restrainer, who prevents the 'mystery of lawlessness already at work' from being fulfilled."

However, the Emperor’s autocratic authority did not attain the status of a Church dogma. While the Emperor had the right (and duty) to defend the purity of the faith and to participate in Church councils, the decisive voice in matters of Church and doctrine rested with the bishops. Conversely, Church hierarchs were morally obligated to protest against state policies that contradicted Christian ethics or the interests of the Church, though the final decision remained with the Emperor.

Still, human nature often prevailed. Emperors sometimes convened councils mainly composed of bishops who supported their views, seeking to dogmatically affirm their preferred positions. Yet, if such councils officially declared heresy, it was almost always overturned within a decade or two. Although Emperors confirmed appointments of new Patriarchs (and often appointed them personally), altered ecclesiastical boundaries for political reasons, and enacted laws affecting Church organization, they never had the authority to unilaterally proclaim dogmas.

On the other hand, Patriarchs often helped (or deliberately withheld support) in placing certain candidates on the throne, thereby securing for them the support of the Christian populace. But when the unity of Church and imperial authority served personal ambitions or supported heretical teachings, or when the power deviated from the righteous path, voices of rebuke arose—among them those of such luminaries as St. Athanasius the Great, St. Basil the Great, St. Gregory of Nyssa, St. Gregory the Theologian, and St. Cyril of Alexandria.

The old saying “the voice of the people is the voice of God” was often confirmed in practice. Not long before the fall of the Empire, two Byzantine Emperors—desperately seeking political alliance with the Catholic West—invited carefully selected bishops to councils in Lyon (1274) and Ferrara/Florence (1430) with instructions to vote for reunion with Rome. On both occasions, reunion was officially proclaimed but soon deemed premature and rejected by the united voices of the Byzantine clergy and laity.