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BUILDING MODERN TURKEY

State, Space, and Ideology in the Early Republic



   University of Pittsburgh Press, 7500 Thomas Boulevard, 4th Floor, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, U.S.A.



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20 1937       ,      ,  ,   [2 -          ,   ,   2026  1937.: Turkey: Matbuat Umum M?d?rl?g? // LExposition dHistoire. La Turquie Kemaliste, 1937. No. 2122. P. 1322.].          ,          .            ,    .      ,            ,     ,     .  1931,            ,   ,      :     ,   :      ,     ,    [3 - -: Tarih yazmak, tarih yapmak kadar m?himdir. Yazan yapana sadik kalmazsa degismeyen hakikat, insanligi sasirtacak bir mahiyet alir.]. ,  ,    , ,        ,       ,              [4 -     ,  蠫    .,  : Anderson B. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and the Spread of Nationalism. New York: Verso, 1983; Hobsbawm. E. J. Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012; Hobsbawm E., Ranger T. The Invention of Tradition, Past and Present Publications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. .        : Weber E. My France: Politics, Culture, Myth. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1991; Brubaker R. Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992; El-Haj N. A. Facts on the Ground: Archaeological Practice and Territorial Self-Fashioning in Israeli Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008; Marashi A. Nationalizing Iran: Culture, Power, and the State, 18701940. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008; Lasansky M. D. The Renaissance Perfected: Architecture, Spectacle, and Tourism in Fascist Italy. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004.        ,       , .: Harley J. B. The Map and the Development of the History of Cartography / Eds. D. Woodward; J. B. Harley. The History of Cartography, V. 1.  : June 22, 2012, http://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/H/bo3620863.html; Black J. Maps and Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004; Monmonier M. S. How to Lie with Maps. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.].

,        ,            ,         ,     ,     [5 -      ,       , .: Copeaux E. Tarih Ders Kitaplarinda (19311993): T?rk Tarih Tezinden T?rk Islam Sentezine. Istanbul: Tarih Vakfi Yurt Yayinlari, 1998; Behar B. E. Iktidar ve Tarih: T?rkiyede Resmi Tarih Tezinin Olusumu (19291937). Istanbul: AFA Yayinlari, 1992; Childress F. Republican Lessons: Education and the Making of Modern Turkey. PhD diss., University of Utah, 2001.].  ,              ,           ,          -  .

,                  .               [6 -   ,        XIX   ,           .         .: Behar B. E. Ibid.; Copeaux E. Ibid.; Childress F. Ibid. ,    , .: Akt?re S. 19. Y?zyil Sonunda Anadolu Kenti Mekansal Yapi ??z?mlemesi. Ankara: Orta Dogu Teknik ?niversitesi Yayinlari, 1978; Kasaba, Keyder, Tabak. Eastern Mediterranean Port Cities and Their Bourgeoisies: Merchants, Political Projects, and Nation-States // Fernand Braudel Center Review 10. No. 1986 (n.d.). P. 12135; ?elik Z. Empire, Architecture, and the City: French-Ottoman Encounters, 18301914. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008.].        ,    ,      ,        ,     [7 -   ,       : G??ek F. M. Ethnic Segmentation, Western Education, and Political Outcomes: Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Society. Poetics Today 14, 1993, No. 3. P. 50738.                    .: Barkey K. Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.].    XIX,      ,      ,    ,  ,    ,  .                   ,        ,       ( )  .






  ,    ,      ,      .       



             .              ,    ,         [8 -        .: Phrankoudake A., Keyder ?. Ways to Modernity in Greece and Turkey: Encounters with Europe, 18501950. London: I. B. Tauris, 2007.  ,        , .: Veinstein G. (ed). Sel?nik 18501918: Yahudilerin Kenti ve Balkanlarin Uyanisi. Istanbul: Iletisim, 1999; Zandi-Sayek S. Ottoman Izmir: The Rise of a Cosmopolitan Port, 18401880. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2012.  ,        , .: Somel S. A. Osmanli Ermenilerinde K?lt?r Modernlesmesi, Cemaat Okullari ve Abd?lhamid Rejimi. Tarih ve Toplum: Yeni Yaklasimlar, 2007. No. 5. P. 7192.].  ,         ,      XIX,          : ,           ,           ,       [9 - Keyder ?. State and Class in Turkey: A Study in Capitalist Development. London: Verso, 1987; Barkey K. Thinking about the Consequences of Empire. After Empire: Multiethnic Societies and Nation-Building / Ed. M. von Hagen. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997. P. 94114.].         ,            ( ,      ),                XIX.            (19121913),       ,              ,          [10 - .: Findley C. V. Turkey, Islam, Nationalism, and Modernity: A History, 17892007. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010. Esp. Ch. 4; Hanioglu M. S. The Second Constitutional Period (19081918). The Cambridge History of Turkey: V. 4, Turkey in the Modern World, 1st ed. /Ed. R. Kasaba. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. P. 62111.].     ,   XIV XV,         ,     ,      ,    .         ,         .   XIX     ,   -    ,    .          (  -,   ),    ,          ,   ,  [11 - Findley C. V. Ibid. P. 204.].

              ,       [12 - Kasaba R. A Moveable Empire: Ottoman Nomads, Migrants, and Refugees. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2009. P. 123126.]. ,       ,            ,       .               ()   ,      [13 - Hanioglu M. S. Ibid. P. 6870.].     ,       .              , ,    ,    [14 -         .: AhmadF. The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics 19081914. London: C. Hurst, 2009; Hanioglu M. S. A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008; Idem. Op. cit.; Z?rcher E. J. The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building: From the Ottoman Empire to Atat?rks Turkey. London: I. B. Tauris, 2010.].      ,   ,         .   ,   ,     (   ,    ),             ( -),    .

                        .     ,            [15 -         (), ,   ,  ,    (  ,      ).      ,  .].      ,           ,      ,                 .  ,         ,            .  ,     ,     ,        .    ,              ,   .   ,    ,      ,     [16 - Aktar A. Varlik Vergisi ve T?rklestirme Politikalari. Istanbul: Iletisim Yayinlari, 2000; Ak?am T. Ermeni Meselesi Hallolmustur: Osmanli Belgelerine G?re Savas Yillarinda Ermenilere Y?nelik Politikalar. Istanbul: Iletisim Yayinlari, 2008.].  1915                [17 - ,     ,    , .   ,    ,     , .: Ak?amT. Ibid; Suny, G?? ek, Naimark. A Question of Genocide: Armenians and Turks at the End of the Ottoman Empire. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013. KieserH. Iskalanmis Baris: Dogu Vilayetlerinde Misyonerlik, Etnik Kimlik ve Devlet 18391938 / Trans. Atilla Dirim. Istanbul: Iletisim, 2005; Ak?am T. The Young Turks Crime against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012.].     ,   ,   ,       , ,  ,           40%        ,    ,   [18 - Z?rcher. E. J. Op. cit. P. 139.         800 000  2,5  ,       1,5 .     .: Ak?am T. Ibid. P. 253264.].        2,5%,           [19 -             .: Karpat K. Osmanli N?fusu 18301914. Demografik ve Sosyal ?zellikleri, Istanbul: Tarih Vakfi Yurt Yayinlari, 2003; McCarthy J. Muslims and Minorities: The Population of Ottoman Anatolia at the End of the Empire. New York: New York University Press, 1983.].

  1918           .      ,   -  (- ),       , ,        ,      .  ,     ,      ,    ,       - ,                 ,      [20 -            .: Z?rcher E. J. Op. cit.].     ,  - ,   ,   ,       ,  ,    -,    ,            .                , ,  ,          .     -       ,       .   ,    ,        ,   ,   ,    .

      -  ,                   ,       .  1923    ,       ,   .      .     ,              ,      ,             [21 -    ,    ,    ,       .        ,       : Berman M. All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity. London: Verso, 1983; Harvey D. The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change. Oxford: Blackwell, 1989.              .: Weber E. Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France 18701914. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1977.   (   )   .: Garner A. A Shifting Shore: Locals, Outsiders, and the Transformation of a French Fishing Town, 18232000. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005.].                      ,        .  ,    ,             ,         .        ,     ,         [22 -     ,      ,  ,  , : Gellner E. Nations and Nationalism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983; Rae H. State Identities and the Homogenisation of Peoples. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.    ,         , .: Bruinessen M. van. Agha, Shaikh, and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan. London: Zed Books, 1992; Kasaba R. Izmir 1922: A Port City Unravels. Modernity and Culture: From the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean / Ed. Fawaz, Bayly, Ilbert. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. P. 204230; G?le N. The Forbidden Modern: Civilization and Veiling, Critical Perspectives on Women and Gender. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996; Kasaba R. Op. cit.; Yegen M, Devlet S?yleminde K?rt Sorunu, 1. baski. Istanbul: Iletisim Yayinlari, 1999; Ak?am T. T?rk Ulusal Kimligi ve Ermeni Sorunu. Istanbul: Iletisim Yayinlari, 1992; Idem. Op. cit..; Mardin S. Religion and Social Change in Modern Turkey. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989; Barkey K., Hagen M. V. After Empire: Multiethnic Societies and Nation-Building: The Soviet Union and the Russian, Ottoman, and Habsburg Empires. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997.].                  ,    (    ),    ,   [23 -                  ,       ,          . Skocpo T. States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979; Rae H. Theories of State Formation. International Relations Theory for the Twenty-First Century / Ed. M. Griffiths. London: Routledge, 2007. P. 123134.].  -  ,      ,    .                ,   ,        . ,              ,    ,      ,       [24 -       ,              , .: FoucaultM. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Penguin, 1988; Idem. Governmentality, in The Anthropology of the State: A Reader. London: Blackwell, 2006. P. 131143; Balibar E., Wallerstein I. M. Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities. New York: Verso, 1991; Scott J. C. Seeing like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998.].

 ,       15-      -  (    ),                    .     ,  ,      ,    .          XIX   XX                      [25 -   ,      ,       .   , , .: Bennet T. The Birth of the Museum: History, Theory, Politics. London: Routledge, 1995; Hooper-GreenhillE. Museums and the Shaping of Knowledge / Ed. A. Wheatcroft. The Heritage Care and Preservation Management. London: Routledge, 1992; PearceS. Museums, Objects and Collections. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992. ,      ,      (Benedict B. The Anthropology of Worlds Fairs: San Franciscos Panama Pacific International Exposition of 1915. London: Scolar Press, 1983; Morton P. A. Hybrid Modernities: Architecture and Representation at the 1931 Colonial Exposition, Paris, illustrated ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000).               (Conekin B. The Autobiography of a Nation: The 1951 Festival of Britain. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003; Boswell D., Evans J. Representing the Nation: A Reader: Histories, Heritage and Museums, 1st ed. London: Routledge, 1999).].     ,         ,     ,       ,        ,     .          ,    :     ,                .






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          , ,        ,    ,     . -,   ,         14,          ,              .     ,        ,       ,    ,  , ,   ,  , , , , ,   .        ,      ,     .  ,    ,        ,    ,            .      ,      ,   ,             ,   ,         ,    [26 -     ,      ,        (Said E. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1978)            , .: Chatterjee P. Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993); Yegenoglu M. Colonial Fantasies: Towards a Feminist Critique of Orientalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.].  ,    ,         ,       ,    ,           .

-,  ,      ,            ,    .          ,    ,    ,    ,        .       ,   , ,   ,       .            ,            ,   ,    ,                 [27 -               , ,         XIX .    (The Invention of Tradition)                   ,        (Hobsbawm E., Ranger T. The Invention of Tradition).       (Black Athena) ,           ,        . Bernal M. Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1987. .  ,       : Lasansky D. Op. cit.; Zacharia K. Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity. Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing, 2008; Bilsel C. Antiquity on Display: Regimes of the Authentic in Berlins Pergamon Museum. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.].                 ,   .            ,  ,     ,   .   ,       ,    . ,       , ,   ,       .






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1


  (.)   ,    , . .




2


         ,   ,   2026  1937.: Turkey: Matbuat Umum M?d?rl?g? // LExposition dHistoire. La Turquie Kemaliste, 1937. No. 2122. P. 1322.




3


-: Tarih yazmak, tarih yapmak kadar m?himdir. Yazan yapana sadik kalmazsa degismeyen hakikat, insanligi sasirtacak bir mahiyet alir.




4


    ,  蠫    .,  : Anderson B. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and the Spread of Nationalism. New York: Verso, 1983; Hobsbawm. E. J. Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012; Hobsbawm E., Ranger T. The Invention of Tradition, Past and Present Publications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. .        : Weber E. My France: Politics, Culture, Myth. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1991; Brubaker R. Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992; El-Haj N. A. Facts on the Ground: Archaeological Practice and Territorial Self-Fashioning in Israeli Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008; Marashi A. Nationalizing Iran: Culture, Power, and the State, 18701940. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008; Lasansky M. D. The Renaissance Perfected: Architecture, Spectacle, and Tourism in Fascist Italy. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004.        ,       , .: Harley J. B. The Map and the Development of the History of Cartography / Eds. D. Woodward; J. B. Harley. The History of Cartography, V. 1.  : June 22, 2012, http://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/H/bo3620863.html; Black J. Maps and Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004; Monmonier M. S. How to Lie with Maps. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.




5


     ,       , .: Copeaux E. Tarih Ders Kitaplarinda (19311993): T?rk Tarih Tezinden T?rk Islam Sentezine. Istanbul: Tarih Vakfi Yurt Yayinlari, 1998; Behar B. E. Iktidar ve Tarih: T?rkiyede Resmi Tarih Tezinin Olusumu (19291937). Istanbul: AFA Yayinlari, 1992; Childress F. Republican Lessons: Education and the Making of Modern Turkey. PhD diss., University of Utah, 2001.




6


  ,        XIX   ,           .         .: Behar B. E. Ibid.; Copeaux E. Ibid.; Childress F. Ibid. ,    , .: Akt?re S. 19. Y?zyil Sonunda Anadolu Kenti Mekansal Yapi ??z?mlemesi. Ankara: Orta Dogu Teknik ?niversitesi Yayinlari, 1978; Kasaba, Keyder, Tabak. Eastern Mediterranean Port Cities and Their Bourgeoisies: Merchants, Political Projects, and Nation-States // Fernand Braudel Center Review 10. No. 1986 (n.d.). P. 12135; ?elik Z. Empire, Architecture, and the City: French-Ottoman Encounters, 18301914. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008.




7


  ,       : G??ek F. M. Ethnic Segmentation, Western Education, and Political Outcomes: Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Society. Poetics Today 14, 1993, No. 3. P. 50738.                    .: Barkey K. Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.




8


       .: Phrankoudake A., Keyder ?. Ways to Modernity in Greece and Turkey: Encounters with Europe, 18501950. London: I. B. Tauris, 2007.  ,        , .: Veinstein G. (ed). Sel?nik 18501918: Yahudilerin Kenti ve Balkanlarin Uyanisi. Istanbul: Iletisim, 1999; Zandi-Sayek S. Ottoman Izmir: The Rise of a Cosmopolitan Port, 18401880. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2012.  ,        , .: Somel S. A. Osmanli Ermenilerinde K?lt?r Modernlesmesi, Cemaat Okullari ve Abd?lhamid Rejimi. Tarih ve Toplum: Yeni Yaklasimlar, 2007. No. 5. P. 7192.




9


Keyder ?. State and Class in Turkey: A Study in Capitalist Development. London: Verso, 1987; Barkey K. Thinking about the Consequences of Empire. After Empire: Multiethnic Societies and Nation-Building / Ed. M. von Hagen. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997. P. 94114.




10


.: Findley C. V. Turkey, Islam, Nationalism, and Modernity: A History, 17892007. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010. Esp. Ch. 4; Hanioglu M. S. The Second Constitutional Period (19081918). The Cambridge History of Turkey: V. 4, Turkey in the Modern World, 1st ed. /Ed. R. Kasaba. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. P. 62111.




11


Findley C. V. Ibid. P. 204.




12


Kasaba R. A Moveable Empire: Ottoman Nomads, Migrants, and Refugees. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2009. P. 123126.




13


Hanioglu M. S. Ibid. P. 6870.




14


        .: AhmadF. The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics 19081914. London: C. Hurst, 2009; Hanioglu M. S. A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008; Idem. Op. cit.; Z?rcher E. J. The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building: From the Ottoman Empire to Atat?rks Turkey. London: I. B. Tauris, 2010.




15


        (), ,   ,  ,    (  ,      ).      ,  .




16


Aktar A. Varlik Vergisi ve T?rklestirme Politikalari. Istanbul: Iletisim Yayinlari, 2000; Ak?am T. Ermeni Meselesi Hallolmustur: Osmanli Belgelerine G?re Savas Yillarinda Ermenilere Y?nelik Politikalar. Istanbul: Iletisim Yayinlari, 2008.




17


,     ,    , .   ,    ,     , .: Ak?amT. Ibid; Suny, G?? ek, Naimark. A Question of Genocide: Armenians and Turks at the End of the Ottoman Empire. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013. KieserH. Iskalanmis Baris: Dogu Vilayetlerinde Misyonerlik, Etnik Kimlik ve Devlet 18391938 / Trans. Atilla Dirim. Istanbul: Iletisim, 2005; Ak?am T. The Young Turks Crime against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012.




18


Z?rcher. E. J. Op. cit. P. 139.         800 000  2,5  ,       1,5 .     .: Ak?am T. Ibid. P. 253264.




19


            .: Karpat K. Osmanli N?fusu 18301914. Demografik ve Sosyal ?zellikleri, Istanbul: Tarih Vakfi Yurt Yayinlari, 2003; McCarthy J. Muslims and Minorities: The Population of Ottoman Anatolia at the End of the Empire. New York: New York University Press, 1983.




20


           .: Z?rcher E. J. Op. cit.




21


   ,    ,    ,       .        ,       : Berman M. All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity. London: Verso, 1983; Harvey D. The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change. Oxford: Blackwell, 1989.              .: Weber E. Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France 18701914. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1977.   (   )   .: Garner A. A Shifting Shore: Locals, Outsiders, and the Transformation of a French Fishing Town, 18232000. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005.




22


    ,      ,  ,  , : Gellner E. Nations and Nationalism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983; Rae H. State Identities and the Homogenisation of Peoples. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.    ,         , .: Bruinessen M. van. Agha, Shaikh, and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan. London: Zed Books, 1992; Kasaba R. Izmir 1922: A Port City Unravels. Modernity and Culture: From the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean / Ed. Fawaz, Bayly, Ilbert. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. P. 204230; G?le N. The Forbidden Modern: Civilization and Veiling, Critical Perspectives on Women and Gender. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996; Kasaba R. Op. cit.; Yegen M, Devlet S?yleminde K?rt Sorunu, 1. baski. Istanbul: Iletisim Yayinlari, 1999; Ak?am T. T?rk Ulusal Kimligi ve Ermeni Sorunu. Istanbul: Iletisim Yayinlari, 1992; Idem. Op. cit..; Mardin S. Religion and Social Change in Modern Turkey. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989; Barkey K., Hagen M. V. After Empire: Multiethnic Societies and Nation-Building: The Soviet Union and the Russian, Ottoman, and Habsburg Empires. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997.




23


                 ,       ,          . Skocpo T. States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979; Rae H. Theories of State Formation. International Relations Theory for the Twenty-First Century / Ed. M. Griffiths. London: Routledge, 2007. P. 123134.




24


      ,              , .: FoucaultM. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Penguin, 1988; Idem. Governmentality, in The Anthropology of the State: A Reader. London: Blackwell, 2006. P. 131143; Balibar E., Wallerstein I. M. Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities. New York: Verso, 1991; Scott J. C. Seeing like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998.




25


  ,      ,       .   , , .: Bennet T. The Birth of the Museum: History, Theory, Politics. London: Routledge, 1995; Hooper-GreenhillE. Museums and the Shaping of Knowledge / Ed. A. Wheatcroft. The Heritage Care and Preservation Management. London: Routledge, 1992; PearceS. Museums, Objects and Collections. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992. ,      ,      (Benedict B. The Anthropology of Worlds Fairs: San Franciscos Panama Pacific International Exposition of 1915. London: Scolar Press, 1983; Morton P. A. Hybrid Modernities: Architecture and Representation at the 1931 Colonial Exposition, Paris, illustrated ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000).               (Conekin B. The Autobiography of a Nation: The 1951 Festival of Britain. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003; Boswell D., Evans J. Representing the Nation: A Reader: Histories, Heritage and Museums, 1st ed. London: Routledge, 1999).




26


    ,      ,        (Said E. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1978)            , .: Chatterjee P. Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993); Yegenoglu M. Colonial Fantasies: Towards a Feminist Critique of Orientalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.




27


              , ,         XIX .    (The Invention of Tradition)                   ,        (Hobsbawm E., Ranger T. The Invention of Tradition).       (Black Athena) ,           ,        . Bernal M. Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1987. .  ,       : Lasansky D. Op. cit.; Zacharia K. Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity. Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing, 2008; Bilsel C. Antiquity on Display: Regimes of the Authentic in Berlins Pergamon Museum. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.




28


  (.).


