 .       
 


    ,    2011 .  ,          :  ,       ,     .      ,        .      ,              .     .





 

 .       


 

   . . 










   



  ,       ,    ,   .   2008   ,      ,     ,         , ,      .   ,           :  ,        .      ,    .(1)      ,   20092010          ,            .(2)          .    ,        :      .

           :    .                 ,          .   ,  ,       2009 ,     :    288  ,   37    .(3)         (Making Work Pay),     ,     95    .        ,    ,         ,  12   ,   ; 53   ,    ,  24   ,   !(4)       ,      ,        .    2010 ,      ,      ,                 , 55   ,           .(5)           ,           .    ,      ,  26   , 40   ,   34    .(6)   , ,       .

         ,      :    (Tea Party).       ,        ,    ,         .    ,   ,   2009     -  :      Medicare.   :    ,  "-, ,      ",        .(7)      2010   13       "", ,   ,       : 28     .(8)

         ,          ,        ,      .   2010  61     ,      .(9)      ,      ,    .           1935 , 68           ...           ,          .(10)     Medicare    1965 ,     ,         82 .(11) ,         ,       ,      .

  ,    ? ,           :         10 .     ,      ,    .      -   ,     .   ,       , ,   ,              ,    .      . ,         1935 ,         ,      , 20 .                ,     2010 ,           ,       .

 ,    ,     ,    : ,    .  ,     ,    ,  ,    ,   .(12)           ,     ,   ,    .     ,   ,        ,        .       ,    ,       ,    ,   .           ,    ,     ,       ,   .(13)       ,        ;       ,    .

  ,  ,    ,       :   ,           .     ,          ,           ,                .    ,     ,    ,    ,       .

     ,    ,       ,        ,    .           ,    . Ÿ          ,    ,      .    ,       ,    ,     .(14) ,   ,            ,    ,         ,  .  1980     ,        .

      ,       :        . , ,     (Home Mortgage Interest Deduction, HMID),                 . ,              230 000   6,25     .   ,   :         16 751  68 000      3 619   ;     ,    137 300 ,    5 146 ,      2        373 650 ,    6 673 . ,    , ,  .              ,           .    ,  ,     ;               500 000 ,    HMID   14 506 ;      -        ,     29 012 !(15)             :        .             ,        .

  ,    ,         ,           :  ,       ,         ,  ,      .        ,       .     ,       ,    .   ,   ,     ,     ,            ,    .

  ,  ,     ,     ,         . ,          ,   ,       ,           .                 .             ,     ,   .

         ,         .   ,    ,                  .     ,        ,         .     ,  :      ;    .(16)         ,   ,     ,     ,  .             ,     ,               .               ,     ,          .      ,      :         ,       .

   ,        ,    ,       .         -     ,         .          ,      ,     ,               .(17)         ,  ;   ,           ,      ,   ,       , ,     .

        .           ,   ,      :   ,   ,    .         ,  ,     .    ,       ,        .        ,     ,    .(18)              ,  ,   1929 ,           ,     .(19)          .  ,                  ,      . ,  ,    ,  ,    -   ,   .

  .    ,     ,             ,      .    ,        .    ,             .             ,       ,        ,            .            ,       .     ,    ,         ,           .

       ,    .   ,       ,    ,       ,   ,             .      ,         ,     ,    .             ,   .




1.  


           2009 ,       ,    .   ,    ,  :      -      ?(1)          .          ,          Columbia Dispatch:     ,          -      .(2)      ,                  ,    .

   .      ,   ,      ,  ,   ,  Medicare (    )  Medicaid (  ),        .(3)    ,      ,  ,      59      ,   ,    .(4)    ,           ,   1948      .(5)             .(6)

   ,       XXI ,                 .   ,            ,    ;  2009     $2,5 ,  17,6  .(7)     ,        :   , 56   ,     .(8)   ,  ,             ,    20092010          ,        .

,       , ,                  (the submerged state).       , ,  ,      -  ,     ,        ,      (Social Security).    ,             ,                ,       .      ,   ,         . ,      ,  ,              , ,   .   ,     ,        : ,    ,          ;           ,   ,    ;   ,     -,         .(9)

,  ,  .   ,       ,         .   :       !       ,            .         ,  .     :    -                  ,  ,  ,  ,      .        .     ,      ,    .   ,    ,    ,     ,   .

     ,   ,       ,        ,   .  1960-            . ,  ,   ,    ,     ,         11  14   .(10)     1965 ,   ,     ,          .   ,             ,       .  1972      ,      (Student Loan Marketing Association, SLM,    Sallie Mae)      (government-sponsored enterprise), , ,      ,              ,     .(11)         ,   .

,          ,       (Family Federal Education Loans, FFEL),  ,     1.1.   ,    1993      (direct lending),         ,    ,    - ,  80        2008 .(12)   Sallie Mae   ,       ,          .  ,                        ,         -  .(13)

,          ,  .  2008     :                  ,    ,    ?    50   ,     ,  43    ,      ,    ,     .           ,    ,          ,      .(14)  ,   -,   ,    :    ,              .



 1.1.     :        , 19852009 (  2009 )



: National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, Federal Support and Estimated Federal Tax Expenditures for Education, by Category: Selected Fiscal Years, 1965 through 2009, Digest of Education Statistics (2009), http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d09/tables/dt09_373.asp.

           .    (social tax expenditures)           1969 ,    ,   ,    ,      ,       ,     ,      .(15)             Social Security       (Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, TANF),                   (Internal Revenue Service).     1.2,           ,  :    2011    $177 ;       (Home Mortgage Interest Deduction)  $104,5 ;         $67,1 .(16)      ,    :       ,      ,    .   :    2008            7,4       4,2   1976 .(17)  :   (visible governance),           ,          18  ,   ,           .(18)



 1.2.    :       2011  (  )



: Christopher Howard, The Hidden Welfare State: Tax Expenditures and Social Policy in the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 17677; Office of Management and Budget, Analytical Perspectives, Budget of the United States Government, FY2011 (2010), http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy11/pdf/spec.pdf.

            :      ,        .      ,       1966  1981 ,    :     ...       .   ,     .(19)       : ,      ,      ,   ,     ,            .    ,    ,       .  ,  2008 ,       ,  ,       ,       .     50    ,  ; 29   ,     ,  21     .(20) , ,  ,     , ,       : ,   ,   ,      ,   ,      .



    



      ,          ,         .  1988          (government by proxy),        : ,        .(21)           .      (hollow state),          ;         (hidden welfare state)  ;   ,        ,   ;       (shadow of government),      ;            (delegated governance),          .(22)        ,         ,        ,      .

, ,   ,                  .  ,        ,    ,       , ,       .   ,         ,       .   ,         ,       .     ,      , ,  ,           .       ,   ,  ,       , -,         .(23)                .

     ,         (the submerged state),            .                ,   ;     ;  ,    ,             .

      .                   ;      XIX .(24)          ,         .  Medicare:  1970-   Medicare        ,   2010  24   Medicare  11,1        ,    ,       Medicare Advantage.(25)      ,            Medicare,    ,  ,        ,      .(26) ,     ,           ,   .   ,            ,   Medicare       . ,  ,               .          ,       .         ,      ,               ,        ,   ,     .        .

  ,           ,       .  :              ;           ,       ;    ,          ,   ,     .(27)        , ,       ,   ,       ,        .



  



 ,          ?        ,      ,      XX :     ,        .         .      ,  ,                .  ,       : ,  -,                   ,           .       ,     ,      , .  1970-  ,    ,    Social Security  Medicare,   ,        ,  ,                .(28)      ,   ,    ,      .

             ,      . ,       1913         ,      - . ,    - ,   ,     ,     ,    .(29)  1910-  1920-         ,       ,    .(30)   ,  ,    ,          ,    .

          .     , -,    ,        ,               .(31) ,                ,      ,              ,        .          ,   ,  ,     .(32)

  ,      ,        .         ,       .  ,       ,     ,        .      : -,       ; -,       ; -,        ,      ; -,       ,    .

          .        ,                .   ,            1913       ,   1926   -   ( )   ,        .   1970-             .           (Earned Income Tax Credit, EITC),        ,             1975 .(33)

        .   ,      ,      ,    ,    ,  ,      .      ,   ,    .        ,           ,              .

      ,       .           ,    ,     . ,            ,      .      ,        , ,       (starve the beast).      1981 :        ,    ...    ,   ,    ,    .  , ,        ,   .      ,    .(34)    ,   ,    ,             . -  ,     ,     1983 ,       :  ,   ,        -       ,   ,         .          ,    ,     ,    ,  ,    ,         ,       .(35)  ,      , ,  ,            ,      ,          .

                ,   ,        .   , -,   ,              .  ,        ,    ,     .             laissez-faire,      .     ,         ,    ;   ,             .        ,      :  ,        ,         ,      .          ,         ,     ,      .

   ,       ,   ,                   .              .   1980-         ,               .        ,   , ,    ,      .(36)           1984       (Democratic Leadership Council, DLC)        . DLC    ,   1988          EITC         .(37)           1960-,  -           HOPE     (Lifetime Learning),      .   2009       ,    ,      :         ,         .

 ,              ,              ,  ,     .           ,              .   , ,      ,         ,          .(38)

                ,    ,  ,              (HMID).               .              ;   ,      ,       .       ,          ,  ,         .

,    ,     ,     ; ,           ,    . ,   ,    .                 .



    



                   .             .       1981 ,   81;  2010 ,    ,     86    151.     ,    1980-  1990- ,        2000                 ,      .(39)

   ,  -   ,      1981  2010  (  2010 ),     1.3.     1980-        1986 .  ,             ,        .      ,       ,     ,      .(40)                 ,     130   2008 .(41)   ,         ,     $1,086 ,           .



 1.3.        , 19812010 (  2010 )



: Joint Committee on Taxation, Estimates of Federal Tax Expenditures for Fiscal Years ( ), http://www.jct.gov/publications.html; Congressional Budget Office, Tax Expenditures: Current Issues and Five-Year Budget Projections for Fiscal Years 19821986 (1981), http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/51xx/doc5185/doc29-Entire.pdf.



 1.4.        , 19812010 (  2010 )



: Joint Committee on Taxation, Estimates of Federal Tax Expenditures for Fiscal Years ( ), http://www.jct.gov/publications.html; Congressional Budget Office, Tax Expenditures: Current Issues and Five-Year Budget Projections for Fiscal Years 19821986 (1981), http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/51xx/doc5185/doc29-Entire.pdf.

                  (Home Mortgage Interest Deduction)  1913          .  1.4   (  2010 )    ,           . ,          1980-   1990-     ,      ,     2008 .

   ,              ,    .  1.5                 .          ,              8 (Section 8 Housing vouchers).    ,          (     , TANF),                         .           ,       ,       ,             .



 1.5.      , 2007 (  2010 )



: Joint Committee on Taxation, Estimates of Federal Tax Expenditures, 20072011 (2007), http://www.jct.gov/publications.html?func=startdown&id=1198; Office of Management and Budget, Analytical Perspectives: Budget of the United States Government FY 2009 (2008), tables 3.2, 8.5, http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy09/pdf/spec.pdf; Congressional Budget Office, Budget Factsheets for TANF, Food Stamps, and Unemployment (March 2007).



  



  ,  ,         ,     ,     .   ,      ,   ,       ,            .                   (Earned Income Tax Credit, EITC),    ,     ,  ,         .        :          ,    ,   .  ,        ,     ,       ,    .



 1.6 ,            .         ,       .               :  2004  69   55               $100 000     15   .(42)         ,      30     ,    15   .



   ,         ,    ,          .       ; ,        ,       .(43)    ,   ,    .           $200 000  $260 000  2006 ,        $1 000 000; ,             ,       .(44)  ,     ,         ,        ,        .       ,        ,    .  ,     ,      ,          .  ,      ,      ,              .(45)



 1.6.   ,  ,   , 2004



: Leonard E. Burman et al., Tax Code, Employer-Sponsored Insurance, and Tax Subsidies, in Using Taxes to Reform Health Insurance, edited by Leonard E. Burman and Henry J. Aaron (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008); Joint Committee on Taxation, Estimates of Federal Tax Expenditures for Fiscal Years 20052009 (2005), http://www.jct.gov/publications.html?func=startdown&id=1200; Leonard E. Burman et al., Distributional Effects of Defined Contribution Plans and Individual Retirement Accounts, Tax Policy Center Discussion paper No. 16 (2004), http://www.urban.org/uploadedPDF/311029 TPCDP16.pdf.

                     .  1940-         ,      .                   :  ,  ,      2000  2009-,   68  59    .(46)  ,    ,    .(47)                      ,          .    2009       16                85    ;      ,      ,       .(48)  ,   ,      ,        :        $200 000  $500 000        ,     $10 000  $20 000  $4 791  $1 535.(49)       ,         ,      ,  .

            ,          .               ,           .  1980      ,   ,  ,            .(50)         ,      ,        .

        .         19801990- ,       .               ,             ,              ,               .(51)         ,     ,      .  Sallie Mae,   ,      1973         1996-;          2000        Standard & Poor's 500  228 . Ÿ        ,   $37    ,      2006 .(52)

      ,   ,      ,    ,      .      ,       :      $12,2    2009 ,   56    2008 .(53)         ,    ,     $10,6 .(54)        ,  16,7   2010 ,       .(55)

      ,             ,       ,       ,     . ,   ,          ,      .



 



           ,             .          .        ,     ,    .   , ,   ,         .        ,    ,           ,   , ,     :      .             .

,  ,   ,            .     ,            ,     ,                   ?  ,     ,  Medicare    ,     ,    ,        ,      ,  ,  ,     .

       :                  ,         .     (Eugene Steuerle),     ,         :     ,     .          .(56)    ,   ,    ,      ,             .       ,             ,        ,  ,   .     , ,       ,     ,           .

  ,   ,       ,       .  ,             ,  ,      ,  ,     .       ,   ,  ,    , ,   ,          ,        .   ,        :   ,      ,  ,      ,        .        (Social Security)       (G.I. Bill)         ,           - .(57)

,      ,  ,     ,       ,        ,    . ,      ,         ,  ,     .  ,     ,    ,         .(58)          ,   ,      .

 ,       ,     ,    .         ,     ;       ,       . ,  ,       ,             .         ,      .          ,    .   ,       .



   



    ,              ,            .             ,   .    ,           XX .     (Stephen Skowronek),   ,          :                  .(59)                       .

       ,     ,               .          . ,         ,   ,            .            , ,    ,          .   ,      ,     ,      .  ,             .           .

         ,   ,     ,   , ,  .  ,      , :            ,    ?        ,   :    ,     , ,           . ,     ,   ,   ,    ,       ,            .

       (Brains Trust)    ,    ,          (Robert Reich)      (Bill Galston),       .  ,      ,       .        (Cass Sunstein),      Nudge (),         ;   (Jeff Liebman)  ,      ;   (Austan Goolsbee)   ,    ;     (Alan Krueger)              (Michael Barr)       ,     .(60)

     ,      ,   ,   ,   .        ,     ,    .   , -       ,    ,     .   , ,  ,           401(k),          ,    ,   ,      .(61)  ,        ,       ,           .

,      ,   ,      ,        ,             .  ,          .      ,        :  ,       .        ,  ,     ,      .  , ,  ,    ,   .  ,      ,       ;         ;         ,  .        ,       .

 ,       ,   ,             .   ,      ,   ,                   .      ,      ,          .         , :         ;        ,     ;        ,      .              ,     .




2.   


        ,      ,      , ,     2009      . ,         Walmart,  2008        ,     .        ,  ,     . Ÿ                  ,            ,      . ,   ,  ,   .(1)

   ,   ,   ,   (interest groups),    ,       .     2008       ,        (HMO)   $167,3 ,    ,      .  2009         .  ,  ,     ,     $3,4    1998 .  2009   Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America,   PhRMA,      ,  $26   ,      ;     Pfizer, Amgen  Eli Lilly      .             ,   :  $144               2008   $62 .(2) , ,       ,   ,      (the submerged state),       .

          ,            ,      .                ,     ,         .           ,     ,    . . :       .(3)        ,     ,             (policy feedback effects),         .(4)     ,  ,   ,  .         ,              ,  ,   ,   . ,                   ,       ,      ,       .             (vested interests)   ,            ,     .



  



               ,          .              ,      .      ,        ,    ,    ,         .  ,      ø -    (passive intervention),         .(5)

 ,       ,       ,       ,      . ,             (tax breaks)     ,    1960-           .          ,                    .    ,     :  1967  1995        (Home Mortgage Interest Deduction)      7       .(6)           1965 ,   1993      .         ,     , ,           ,     .(7)            .  ,       ,     .

            ,     .     ,     ,         ,    ,      .            ,      .  1990  2006           ,   $697 205  $1 362 239   2008 ;         75    $5 433 276  1990   $9 435 839  2006    2008 .(8)              (soft money)  ,      ,     .(9)  ,    ,    527 (527s)     , .(10)          90      1999  2009    $1,93   $3,55    2010 .

       ,       ,   ,     ,    , ,  ,              ,     .          ,             .  2.1.           ,      .       ,     $43     1992   $138   2008    2010  (.   ).            ,        ,   Aetna  BlueCross BlueShield,     ;  ,         ,    .         ,    ,    ,    1992  2008 ,              350  (.   ).

,       ,   1998  2009 ,     2.2.   ,      , ,                      .(11)         27     (.   )       73       186      (.   ).



 2.1.    , 19902008



: Center for Responsive Politics, Interest Groups, OpenSecrets.org, http://www.opensecrets.org/industries/index.php.



 2.2.     , 19982009



: Center for Responsive Politics, Interest Groups, OpenSecrets.org, http://www.opensecrets.org/industries/index.php.

     ,      ,      ,          .  1970-     ,       ,   .   ,     ,          , ,       .(12)  ,     ,     ,   ,  ,  ,     ,    .(13)        ,   AARP     ,         ,      .(14)  2009             ,    ,    ,       ,   .

 ,   ,   ,  ,    ,  ,  .       1990-  -     K Street (K Street strategy),            ,     .(15)               ,  .(16)    . -,           ,        ,    ,    ,          .(17) -,  ,    ,      ,          .  ,  ,     ,(18)       ,   ;  2010        ,    . -,                .   ,          ,      ,     .     ,                       ,   .

 :            ,               ,    .               ,           .  ,         -.               ,  ,   ,     ,       ,     ,     .        ,  ,   ,      ,    .



  



   (civic engagement)       2008     ,         .      ,    ,   ,            (Organizing for America);        ! (Health Care for America NOW!); MoveOn.org;  Planned Parenthood.                  (Tea Party).      , ,    ,       ,   ,   ,    .(19)




  .


   .

   ,     (https://www.litres.ru/book/suzanna-mettler/skrytoe-gosudarstvo-kak-nevidimaya-gosudarstvennaya-politi-74072624/)  .

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