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 10.         93

 11.           102

 12.          112

 13.         128

 14.          153

 15.         172

 16.          184

 17.           195

 18. ,         206

 II.        217

 19.         218

 20.         228

 21.          238

 22.          248

 23.         257

 24.          269

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        288









  ?

     ?

   .               , , ,   ,    ,   .      ,      ,  ,          ,   .

      ,      .  1950-      .         ,   ,      .   ,              .                  [1 - , .   : , , . , 2023.].            ,    : , ,  ,     ,   , ,         ,   ,   .              .

      :              ,        ,  ,   ?

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 :     .   :         , ,  ? ,  ,   :         ?

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    , , .     ,        ,    ,     .              .

    .

 , ,    ,  :              .             ,       .       : , , RFC  ,   .    ,   ,        :   ,   ,    ;  ,   ,  , ,     ;     2008 ,      .       ,  ,    .

 , ,      .        : , ,  , ,       ,    ,     .         :            ?       ,   .  ,       ,         ;             ,    .

     .         ,       ,            .

  .     ,    : ,     -       ,  - .

   .

        ,  ,      ,   ,      [2 - Werner, R. Princes of the Yen: Japan's Central Bankers and the Transformation of the Economy. Armonk (NY): M. E. Sharpe, 2003; Werner, R. New Paradigm in Macroeconomics. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.]. ,     ,   ,      .                   [3 - Chandler, A. D. Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press, 1990.].    , ,  -     ,    [4 - Gerschenkron, A. Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press, 1962.].                 ,    ,   ;      .

  .          ,     ,     ,   :     ,     ,    , ,  ,  ,        ,    .               ,   ,   ,    ,     .



 I.  




 1.  




    ,             .    ,   .    483    ,                .      ,     ,    ?

   ,       ,     ,      .   483     ,    ,    :               [5 - Conophagos, C. Le Laurium antique et la technique grecque de la production de l'argent. Ath?nes: Ekdotike Hellados, 1980; Hopper, R. J. The Attic Silver Mines in the Fourth Century B.C. // Annual of the British School at Athens. 1953. Vol. 48. P. 200.].        ,     .

    ,   , ,   ,        .            ,      ,        , ,  .      ,          .

       , ,  ,    .   ,       :         ,      ,        .

                     .           ,       ,           .  ,   ,   , ,       .      ,         .








  

       ,   -.      ,        ,   ;    .        ,       . ,       ,     [6 - [].  . 22, 7.].

     .           .            ,   .        .          ,   ,        .    ,       . ,           ,     ,        ,  ,      ,  ,   , ,   ,     .              ,       .     ,   ,   .

 ,  , ,     ,        .   ,         ,   .         ,    .

     ,     .             ,     .    ,   ,       ,    ,      .   .        ,              ,      ,            .     :      ,                ,            [7 - Gabrielsen, V. Financing the Athenian Fleet: Public Taxation and Social Relations. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994.].   ,            ,     ,     , ,      .   ,       ,    ,     .

    .        ,  480    ,             ,     -  .              ,       .        .

     ,      ,     ,        .   ,        .    ,       .   ,            ,     .   ,            ,  .              ,    ,     ;     (  )    .

     ,            , ,       .         ( )     ,            ,     .  ,     , ,    ,  ,   .    ,    ,    ,   ,             . ,         ,   ;  ,   ,    .

      .               ,              [8 - .  / . . . . VII, 144; [].   / . . . 22, 7.].  ,       ,    .     .              . ,           ,   ,    ,   .      .        ,        .             ,       [9 - Meiggs, R. The Athenian Empire. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972.].

    ,                            -  ,         .       :         -,       .        ,   ,   ,      .

 , ,   ,       ,    :    ,   . ,      ,     ,         ,    ,   ,     .    ,     ;      ,      . , , ,    ,        .

  .       ,    ,   ;  ,  ,         .      ,    ,     ,         ,  ,    .  ,        ,  , ,  ,   ,      .   ,          .




 2.    




  III             ,      ,         ,    .   ,    ,  .       ,     ,    ,     .           ,        .

    :

 ,   140   ..            25000  ()     ,        ,   ,      ,  20000       .  ,  ,   ,   ,     ,             [10 - Howgego, C. The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World, 200 B.C. to A.D. 300 // The Journal of Roman Studies. 1992. Vol. 82. P. 6.].

          ,      . ,    ,      450       200  ,   150    100 ,    1940-  164  [11 - Patterson, C. Silver Stocks and Losses in Ancient and Medieval Times // The Economic History Review. 1972. Vol. 25, No. 2. P. 216.].

   ,    ,                (),           ,       ,  , ,      .

      ,                ,     , ,      ,     ,                  .       ( )  II    .               ,    .



 

                ,    II        :      ,    [12 - Kay, P. Rome's Economic Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.].      ; ,  ,     ;      ,  ,        ,           .  II        ,     ,       .

        ,  ,  ,       .          ,   .  societates publicanorum   ,      ,     ;   ,   ,     ,    ,          .                :         ,        ,      [13 - Temin, P. The Roman Market Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013.].         ,          ,    ,        ,   (, , ),  ,   .      ,   .



  

      .     ,       ,    ,   ,        .

Societates publicanorum      .       ,   ;     ,    ;                ,  ,  ,    .          ,          ,         ( 4).  ,             ,        .

,    ,       .               .               ,     ,  ,     ,  .     ,             ,      ,   ,   .    :           .         ,  ,       ,     .      ,   ,     ,  .

 

          ,              .     .

          .    ,    ,         ,    ,              .        .     I        ;    ,   III       .         ,  ,  ,     ,     ,     .  ,   ,      , ,           [14 - Harl, K. Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.].

   ?  ,      :       .    (  ,  )  ,        .        ,        ,        .

 ,           ( ,    ).  :            ,          ,     .            :      ,    .    III    ,         ,    ,    .



 

    ,       ,       .

   ,   ,  ,     ,     ,       .     :      ,   ,               .      :     .   ,              .  ,             ,         .          ,  ;        :  ,  .         ,      ,   ,         .          ,          ( 11).   ,      ,   .

          :      ,        ,  ,            ,    .   :   ,   ;   ;  ;   ,   .   : ,       ,  ,  ,        ,   .

 ,       .

 :            ,     .        ,                 :   ,         .     ,  ,          .   ,      ,       .

 ,   :  ,  .                 : ,      ,    ,    .    ,      .    ,    .  ,     ,       ( 11),       .

 :        .    ,   ,                ,    .  ,    :         ,          .      .

  .   ,       ,        .       ,  ,  ,    ,       .       :    ,      ,   .          ,     ,  .         ,    ,        ,        .           .




 3.   




  XI        ,          .  ,      ,   ,   ,   . ,       ,   ,         .      ,      :           ,          , ,     .  ,   jiaozi,         .

 ,        ,   -.   ,     ,       .     ,         :    .         ,    ,    .   ,     ,              .         ,    ,      -     .

       ,    ,       .      -  :      .        ,         ,      .     ,    .

    :   ,      ?          :     ,   ,    ,  .



  

          ,       .   XXIII  ,   ,      :   ,     ,  ,      ,      .         ,    ,    ,       .             .

         .    ,    ,         . -,   ,   ,       ,        . - ,       ,        ,        . -,     ,       :      ,  ,         ,       .   -,             ,     .

 ,    ,        ,     (      ),  ,    ,   :    ,      .      ,       .   ,   ,         ,    ,      .



  

     :       ?

  ,   ,     ,     .          ;        ,    .       .



  

           ,        . ,  ,      . -,      ,   1260-    ,       ,   .     ,     ,  ,       .  ,             ,       ,   .








   

 ,    ,       ,        .         ,    . ,  ,    ,      ,               ,     ,  ,        [15 - , .     / . . . .: , 2005.].  ,     ,    ,   ,     ,   .         ,           ,    .

       ,            .



   

      ,           :      ,      .

    . ,  ,           ,       .   ,   ,  ,       ,          :            .     ,     :  ,  ,        ,    .     . ,    ,    , ,  ,  ,     ,     .   XIV       ,         ,  :      ,   1368      .

,    .        .   :      ,    ,    ,     .   ()  ,  ,                .         ,      ,  ,         .        .



 ,  

  ,    .      ,       ,     .   ,       ,       ,    [16 - von Glahn, R. Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China, 10001700. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.].

,   ,         .   ,            ,                 .      ,     ,  -       .   ,         ,         ,    ,    . ,     ,                 .

      . ,   ,     ,   ,   ,        .       ,      ,    ,        .      ,        (),    ,     .  ,       ,       ,    .     ,   :      ,     .       ,   .

 ,      .

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 :      ,   ,       ,          .  ,     ,   ,   ,      .   :   ,          ,         .

 .    ,    ;     ,          .     ,         ,  ,      ,     .       ,          ,           .




 4.   




  1300-                    ,       .  , -,   :  ,       ,    ,  ,    ,    .  , -,   :  ,    ,      , ,         .     ,       ,    ,        .    ,   ;       ,   .

   ,     ,      .       :    ,    .  ,   ,     ,        .        :      ,        ,     ,    ,    .

    ,        ,     ,     .       .     :    ,       .



  

        ,      .           ,    .

         .          ,           .      ,       ,    .        ( ),   ,      ,       ,      ,    ,   .     ,      ,         ,        ().

 ,        ,  ,      ,    ;           [17 - Udovitch, A. Partnership and Profit in Medieval Islam. Princeton, 1970.].

        ,   .       .      :          ,     ,       .     ,       ,   ,        ,     ,    .        ,     ,  .  ,  ,          .      ,   ,     .           ,        .

  .     ,  ,            ? ,   ,         (  ),  - .



 

 ,    ,  ,         ,   . ,    ,     ,     .                 .    ,    ,  ,   .       ,    ,        ,      .        .

       ,     .                ,   ,      ,    .    XIV   , ,             ,       :       ,    ;       ;   ,       ;   ,            .   ,   ,   ,     ,      :         ,       ,   [18 - de Roover, R. The Rise and Decline of the Medici Bank, 13971494. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press, 1963.].

     ?

  , -, :       ,      . -,      :     ,    ,       . -,         :        ,          .      ,            -,     -   .    ,    ,   ,   ,   ,  ,       .     -    ,  ,            .



    

 ,         ,      ,      ?

          ,      :      .      ,          [19 - Kuran, T. The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011.].

    , ,      ,         ,     ,     .

        .    ,      ,            .         ,   ,    ,        :        ,        .

     :         ,            .

,     ,          .          ,  ,   ,       ,   ,        .          ,   ,  -  -    .

,           ,    ,            .  -    ,    ,  .          .   ,          ,   ,   , ,     ,     .    ,         .  ,    ,  - ,           .    ,           :         , ,  ,      .   ,   ,                  .



   

        ,  ,        -     ,           .       ,                ,     .    ,   ,     ,        .         ( XIX ), ,     ,    ,  ,    , ,        ,      ,           .

     .    8    ,   ,          -,    -,            .       ,    ,          .   ,         ,     ,              .       ,     ;   ,      ,       ,         .



 

     ,     ,      ,    ,    ,    ,     .

  ,  ,     ,    ,  ,   ,    . ,  ,     ,         ,     ,       :   ,    .

            ,    ,       ,   -      ,        (,   2008 .).           ,  ;           (    ,     ).        ,          ,         ,     [20 - , . ., , . .        //        . 2024.  34. . 117123.].

  ,     (  )     ,        ,        2008  ( 17).    ,   ,      ,  ,    , , ,   ,     . ,   ,   .



  

 ,      .

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 ,    :     .   ,  ,      ,        .         ,    .     ,     ,        .    ,          ,   ,   ,    .

  .    ,        ,   ,       ,     ,   .   ,    ,   ,            .    ,    ,         ,     .      ,       ,     ,        .                 ,        ,  ,       ,        .     .




 5.      




 1694    Mercers' Hall      ,    ,      ,         .        ,          .      ,          XIV,   .     ,            (The Governor and Company of the Bank of England).           ,  ,    ,     .                     .        ,    ,           .

  ,    XIV     ,       .    ,    ,        .      :  ,  ,     ,       .   ,       XVIII   :         ,               .     ,   ,      ,        .                 .          :       ,         ,     [21 -   : , .     . , 2020.  3      .].

               .            ,   . ,          ,   ,        ,   ,     1694         , .



,   

  ,               .    1688        .

 ,   ,    ,      ,     .     ,       ,       -;     ;  , ,      ,      .       1672 ,   II,            .           ,       .   ,            .



  

 1688      ,         .

  II        ,  ,    ,          .     ,        , ,   ,          .          ,  ,   ,       ,     .       1989       [22 - North, D., Weingast, B. Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth-Century England // Journal of Economic History. 1989. Vol. 49, No. 4. P. 803832.],  , ,   ,     .  ,           ,            .     .       :   1688      ,            ,     .

               :             .

  1694        ,        ,   ,    ,     .

   ,   ;      (      ),    .   1688                   ,       ,     ,      .    ,       ,        .



    

     1694          .    :             (   ),   , , .  , -,         ,  -,    :    ,   ,  ,     ,     ,   .  ,  ,     :           ,      ,   .         .

,  .     ,   ,     .    ,   :              .    ,  ,     ,    .     :   ,   ,   ,      .           ,   ,  ,   ,   .  ,    ,    ,    ,   ,     ,      .       :   ,     ( 11),        ( 14)     ,     1694 .          ,         .



    

 1656          Stockholms Banco,    1661           ,    ,    .     ,         ,    .

  1668       ,   ,        (  ).   ,       .   Stockholms Banco    1668       ,      ,   .  ,       ,     .

         . ,  ,          .  ,      ,  ,  ,      .  1694    1668           :  ,       ,        .



  

   ,      ,     .

 1694    :         ,    ,   .             ,     .

 ,    ,    . ,              .        1930-  ( 14),           ( 11),          .        ,    .

  ,      ,   ,   ,      ,   .               ,                     ,       ( 7).        ,    ,    .    ,     ,   . ,    ,  ,    ,   .

     ,        ,    ,    .   ,   ,           ;   ,         .          XVIII     ,              ,      .     .

 ,           ,  ,   ,        .      XVIII     ,          :      ,      ,         .       ,        1789       .

 ,      ,     ,   -,    .         ,  ,        ,    .

      .    ,     , ,         1688 ,       [23 - Clark, G. The Political Foundations of Modern Economic Growth: England, 15401800 // Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 1996. Vol. 26, No. 4. P. 563588.].     ,      ,      [24 - Stasavage, D. Public Debt and the Birth of the Democratic State: France and Great Britain, 16881789. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.],        ,         ,     ,        .       ,  1688       ,        ,       ,       [25 - Pincus, S., Robinson, J. What Really Happened During the Glorious Revolution? // Galiani, S., Sened, I. (eds.) Institutions, Property Rights, and Economic Growth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.].

   ?

,           1688 ,      .   ,   ,  ,      ,         .  .

 ,     ,   . ,  ,          .    ,       ,        ,      ,         .      ,     .      ,     ,    -  XVIII    .

,  .

 :     ,     ,     .  ,  ,     ,       .          ,     ,   .          ,       ,       17,     .

 :            ,    ,    ,    ,   .  1694      ,        .

 :     .  ,   ,     .           ( 7),        .   ,      ,     ,    .   ,     .

  .        ,  ,         .             ,   ,      .   ,     ,    .    ,  ,         ,   .      ,     ,     .




 6.    




  1716                .     ,      ,          .  , ,        ,     .  ,      ,         ,      .

   -  XIV,    ,     .    ,    -      ,        ,       .    ,     XV,        ,      ,     ,    .

         ,       ,    .    (   ).               ,    .

                    ,  ,    .  ,  ,       ,     ,       .     ,            .

      1705   ,       ,      [26 - Law, J. Money and Trade Considered, with a Proposal for Supplying the Nation with Money. Edinburgh: Andrew Anderson, 1705.].          ,            .   ,     : ,  ,       ,           ,      . ,  ,   ,       ; ,    ,   ,     ,   ,  ,    .      ,    ,    :  ,  ,   .    ,   ,       ,  ,  .

      ,           .             .      ,     ,     .   ,                 .    ,       .        ,   ,       .        (    ),      .   ,    .     .



 

    ,   ,       ,            .

   .  1716    Banque Generale   ,   .   ,        ,      ,       .    ,   1718   ,   Banque Royale   ,      .      .  1717    Compagnie d'Occident ( ),          ,          .              -, , , ,    1719      Compagnie des Indes,       .      :           .  ,    :         .

        .   .   ,      ,        , ,  ,       ,  Banque Royale  ,      ,    .      ,           .       ,   ,      .

 ,     Banque Royale,     ,    .         ,      , ,      .     .

          ,   -        . ,    1719    ,   1720      .       ,   ;      .           ,     .          ,     ,         .

 ,    ?

  ,   ,     ,    . ,    ,  ,      :    .        1980- ,  ,       ,     ,    XX  ( 14).          ,       . ,   ,     :  ,       .



   

,      ,       .            ?

  ,         . ,      ,    :   ,   ,  -  ,     ,   ,     ,   .   ,   ,    ,     .      (),    ,   ,         .   Banque Royale        ,     ,        .       .

      ,                  .        ,        .      .      ,    ,   ,   ,       .         ,   .      :  ,         ,     .       -     ,      .



     

 ,     1720      ,      .    : ,        ,          ,        -    (   ).    1720          .           ,       ,      .

      ,          ,       ,         .

        .      ,        ,               .  ,  ,   ,    ,   ,     ,        .

  ?

              ,          .         ,     ,      ,      ,      .    , ,     : ,       ,       .       ,    .      ,      1720      ,    .



 

    .

  1720  ,    ,  .       ,     ,      . ,    ,   ( ,   )               .    ,    .    ,                 .    ,       .   ,       ,       ,    .   1720     ,          .

 ,    ,     ,          [27 - Murphy, A. John Law: Economic Theorist and Policy-Maker. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.], , ,       :            ,   XX    .  ,     ,            ,     ,         .  ,  ,      ,      , ,          .     -,        ,        [28 - Velde, F. Government Equity and Money: John Law's System in 1720 France. Chicago: Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, 2007.].           .

   ?

    ,      . ,   ,     ,    .      ,     ,    ,                ,   , ,         ,      .    ()           .

  ,        ,      :     ,      .  -  ,           .

 ,     .

 :       .   ,             ,       ,    XX .        :  ,      ,    ,    .      ;   ,     ,      .

 :    ,         .  ,       (   1980- ).         :        .

 :   .        ,      1720     ,    ,       ,     .        ,        .     ,    :        .

  . ,    ,   ,     ,  ,        .       ,   ,    1789 .        ,        ,   ,       ,    .    .




 7.   




         34   1789 .  ,     ,  .   ,      ,  ,      ,    .    -    .

    ,      ,       ,      .        ,       ,    .  ,      ,        ,     ,            .

  ,        ,         . ,  1720-         ,     .     ,   ,          . ,  ,                ,        ,     .   -         ,         .    :   ,  ,    .

       :  ,        ,          .      ,       ,       ,   .                          . ,    ,   ,     ,       ,      ,   .



 

    ,        ,     1790 .          [29 - Hamilton, A. First Report on the Public Credit (1790) // The Reports of Alexander Hamilton / ed. J. Cooke. New York: Harper & Row, 1964.].

    ,       :  ,       ,   ,    .  , ,   :        ,               (),       .       .

 ,                     ,      .  ,  ,         (assumption),       .      ,   :     ,         ,    ,     ,          .      ,    ,      .

   :        (   ),         ,          ,     .       ,     ;      ,       .   :  ,   ,         ,           .



   

   ,      .   1790      ,        ,   1791       ( )    .   ,      [30 - Hammond, B. Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957.].

  ,    ,       - ;       ,      ,        .    ,    ,      ,               .

 ,         ,      .       ,  ,           ,        .             ,     ,       .



,   

 ,    ,    ,      ,     .           .

        .           1791     ,            .   ,  ,       ,      ,  ,       .   ,           ,       ,   ,          .

,               , ,      .          ( 11),            ,        ( 10). ,  ,      ,       ,          .   ,     ,            ,        .

   , ,      ,    ,         .

 , ,    ,          .       ,  :             .       ,     .   ,  ,               ,     ( 1860- )       -,      .

 ,  ,            ,          .       - ,   1811          ,   .

,      ,       .       .      ,          .           .        ,  ,       .

 ,       .

 :    ,    .                         .      ,     ,           ,         .   ,   .

 :   .   ,            (   )      ,       .    ,        :  ,  ,             , , ,     , , .

  .       .           ,         ,        ,    XVIII   .   XIX ,    ,     .




 8.   




 1852       Socit gnrale du Crdit Mobilier,         ,        .      .

    -,     ,          . -  ,  ,      ,   ,          , ,   ,                 ,    .  Credit Mobilier      .        ,                    ,  ,  ,   .          :     .

     . ,       ,    Credit Mobilier.       ,     ,     ,         .         ,      ?

        ,          .

            :  ,  ,   .          ,   -,  ,       ,      .              .



 

         , -  ,  1962      ,         [31 - Gerschenkron, 1962.].     :              ,         ,     .








  (1904 - 1978)

, ,   ,    :     ,       .      .   ,       ,       ,    ,  , -              .         .

     .     , -:      ,         ,   -  .      ,    :     ,            ,          .       ,    :      ,       ,      .     ,    ;   ,    ,      .

      , ,  ,   .              (   14).            13    ,       . , ,      ,        ,    ,        .

 ,    ,  ,   ,         .   ,                   .




  .


   .

   ,     (https://www.litres.ru/book/raznoe/den-gi-kak-instrument-razvitiia-74410607/)  .

      Visa, MasterCard, Maestro,    ,   ,     ,  PayPal, WebMoney, ., QIWI ,       .



notes








1


, .   : , , . , 2023.




2


Werner, R. Princes of the Yen: Japan's Central Bankers and the Transformation of the Economy. Armonk (NY): M. E. Sharpe, 2003; Werner, R. New Paradigm in Macroeconomics. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.




3


Chandler, A. D. Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press, 1990.




4


Gerschenkron, A. Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press, 1962.




5


Conophagos, C. Le Laurium antique et la technique grecque de la production de l'argent. Ath?nes: Ekdotike Hellados, 1980; Hopper, R. J. The Attic Silver Mines in the Fourth Century B.C. // Annual of the British School at Athens. 1953. Vol. 48. P. 200.




6


[].  . 22, 7.




7


Gabrielsen, V. Financing the Athenian Fleet: Public Taxation and Social Relations. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994.




8


.  / . . . . VII, 144; [].   / . . . 22, 7.




9


Meiggs, R. The Athenian Empire. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972.




10


Howgego, C. The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World, 200 B.C. to A.D. 300 // The Journal of Roman Studies. 1992. Vol. 82. P. 6.




11


Patterson, C. Silver Stocks and Losses in Ancient and Medieval Times // The Economic History Review. 1972. Vol. 25, No. 2. P. 216.




12


Kay, P. Rome's Economic Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.




13


Temin, P. The Roman Market Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013.




14


Harl, K. Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.




15


, .     / . . . .: , 2005.




16


von Glahn, R. Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China, 10001700. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.




17


Udovitch, A. Partnership and Profit in Medieval Islam. Princeton, 1970.




18


de Roover, R. The Rise and Decline of the Medici Bank, 13971494. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press, 1963.




19


Kuran, T. The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011.




20


, . ., , . .        //        . 2024.  34. . 117123.




21


  : , .     . , 2020.  3      .




22


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