  ظ 
 


   4   ,      ,        .       ,   ,         ,     .

       :  ظ    -       ,  ,     .        :      ,        .

 :     ,    .

          ,       ,   ,  ,    .





 

  ظ 



 

 



 

ب 



    



  2026



   4   ,      ,        .       ,   ,         ,     .

       :  ظ    -       ,  ,     .        :      ,        .

 :     ,    .        : , , .

          ,       ,   ,  ,    .



()  , 2026



 



     -      ,     ;        ,     : , ,  (2023),     (2025),       ; MBA   ().



   -     ,   10      ;          ,     ,   ; PhD   , MSc          ( ).



.  

 I.    

 1.  ظ 

 2.   

 3.  - 

 4.   

 II.   

 5.  

 6.   

 7.   

 III.  

 8.     

 9.    

 10.   

 11.    

 12.     

 IV.   

 13.    

 14.  

 V. 

 15.  

 16.  

 17.  

.  






.  


 19521953  -        210       [1 - , . .          . 1966.].  ,           ,    ,              .       -,   XI .     150  80 ,    ,     ,  ,       [2 - , . .         . ., 1958.].

    210           ,        .        .   ,  ,         ,       .

  ,      ,    ,       .

    .      3040 ,    :            .     .    1618 ,    262  294 ,    ,  15 [3 - , . .   . , 1859.].    :   ,   ,           .  ,         .         .

       .            270 ,      27 .       .    27         ,         3040       57 .      210   34 .

       :     ,         .  ,    ,      .

     .           ,   VII   VIII ,      .          .      ,   IX       .    ,      XIXIII :       ,    .     ,    :    .

  ,  VIII        ,       .   :



    ,    ,      .



     .    :   ,    ,       .            .       ,     .

     . -     :     ,    ,       .           .      ,       ,        .

 ,        .  5   -,   ,  ,       -.          9    .    ,   -    ,     .         ,         .  ,    , ,    ,   ,   .

   .   -       ,         ,       .          :     . ,       ,     .     :    ,   ,    ,   .

 ,          : , , ,  ,        .     .

  

      XI    XXI .

 2018   -      .   ,      2 500   ,      30 .     :  ,   ,  .    ,           .

  2020    ,    -    2030       200  .        1 785 .      ,      :      1%  .

  :  ,     ,  ,   .   ,        ,      .   , ,     ,     ,        .

     2022 .    ,   2022   KTZ Express        .       10  47   ,      4 500  2 050 ,     [4 - - -  . , 2022.].

   .   ,     ,   .    ,        .      ,      .      :      ,      ,      .

     .    2022          123%,  6,3  14  .      ,        ,   4  7 ,       264  561   [5 - - -  , 2022.].  ,         ,         .      ,   ,      .

       .   2023      ,       2 000 ,         .      80  :      ,     .        40  [6 -     . , 2023.].    ,           72 .

      .         ,        .          ,           .

     .   2020         .  600                ,     .               .   : 30 000        2 900    ,      [7 -     , 2020.].

         .   ,   :     ,          .

      .   2024      ,           ,         .       ,     [8 -       , 2024.].    :       ,    ,   ,        .

      .   2025                  ,    ,  650  ,   1    750.           ,         .[9 -         , 2025.]

         ,       .      .       ,    .     :        ,          .        ,         .        .

     .             , ,   ,    2025        .

 -    .   2022      500 ,                ,  -  -,        .   2026         150     -     ,         .

  :  ,        .   ,       .   ,         .   ,       , ,   .         ,      .    :               .

       .  ,  ,  ,    ,       .     ,      ,   ,  .     ,    .     :    ,  .     ,     .        ,       ,     ,    .

     .     , , , ,   .          ,      ,       .           -    .

    

   ,       ,     . - XI       :   ,  ,  ,         ,       .        ,    .    ,      ,      ,      ,       ,  .

     :        ?

   ,          (CAREC),    11 .   ,        .  2021        41,6   ,            21,5   .  2022     42,0  23,4   [10 - CAREC. Corridor Performance Measurement and Monitoring. Annual Report 2022.].   4448%     .

    .          13,6   2021   9,9   2022-,    357  208  [11 - CAREC, 2022.].       30 ,               2027   ,         .

    .    -  ,            .         .            .      ,     .        .    , , ,   ,     .

    . :   ?  :    ,    ?       : , , ,   ,  ,    .     .   ,     ,        .

 ,        .   ,      ,    .      :    ,       ,  -   .    ,          .

       .    ,      ,   ,  ,     .    ,  :              .

       ,  :    ,    .           ,            .      ,          .

,       ,        ,    ,   .       .        ,     , ,    .         .

         , , , ,           :     ,      .

    . ,       ,      .   ,       ,       .        ,     ,       .

      .   ,   ظ   ,   : .          .  1 ,  -       ,    .




 I.    



 




 1.  ظ 


 1907  ,     ,  ,   .    ,             .                IV   .      ,    ,      .

       .        ,     .  :       ,               [12 - Sims-Williams, N. The Sogdian Ancient Letters. 2001.].

   313 ,      , ,   ,    . ,   ,    ,      .

 , 1700          ,       ظ        ,    .

  

.    ظ        .  ,          .         .

,    ,  .   :      ,       ,         .       ,             .

    .  ظ    XIX      .    ,    , , , , , , , ,    . ظ  ,      .

 ,   ظ          ,      :

 ,     ;

,    ;

,      ; 

,        .

    :        .

1.  

  3040     -.          .      ,          .

  -  .   , 3040       ,        .  , ,   :    ,   .

 -    .    ,  ,     .    ,     .










- -, -, 

  -  , ,          .       ,   .     ,     .

.        .      ,  :    ,     .

.  -  ,    ,      :     ,    ,   ,   ,      . ,    -,   .

 .         .      .

   .        .           .      -  ,     ,   ,     .

 ,    ,    ,  -    .      . ,           ,     .     ,        .

 , ,        ,           .      ,     .    ,  ,    ,  .     - :        .

    ,    ,     .      ,   ,                 .

2. 

     .        .         ,    ,     .        ,    .          ,   [13 - Udovitch, A. L. Bankers without Banks: Commerce, Banking and Society in the Islamic World of the Middle Ages // The Dawn of Modern Banking. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979.].

   .      ,    .     ,     .

    ,   ,     ,   .     ,        [14 - Udovitch, 1979.].

       :    ,    ,   .  ,    .      ,    ,         .      ,     .

3. 

 ظ        ,       .             ,            .

   :      56      12   ,       III  X [15 - Hansen, V., Rong X. How the Residents of Turfan used Textiles as Money, 273796 CE // Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 2013.].   ,   ,      ,      .  ,    ,         [16 - Hansen, Rong, 2013.].

      ,      .       :  ,     .  ,   ,           .

   ,      . ظ,   ,      ,     :       .

     .        ,     ,  ,      .   ,   ,     .

,    

        .          ,    .

 670      30-    ,  -  .    ,    ,       ,     [17 - Hansen, V. The Impact of the Silk Road Trade on a Local Community: The Turfan Oasis, 500800 // Les Sogdiens en Chine. Paris, 2005.].

  .      ,  .        .           ,         ,        ,      .      275  ,      , 300  .

   ,     :       ,       .

    .     ,    ,     : , , ,   . ,      .    ,      ,      .   .

        ,      ,    .      .       :      .     ,      ,     .          ,    .         275    [18 - Hansen, 2005.].    , :     .

   ,          .

.     ,        ,    .    ,     .    :   ,    ,  ,     .

.     ,    ,   ,       ,  .  ,    ,    .      ,       ,   .

.     ,    ,      ,   .          ,      .      :          ,   ,      .

.      ,      .    ,      .        ,       .

    ,      .   ,    20 ,       ,   ,           . ,           ,   ,            . ,    ,  .

   ظ 

      ,        ظ .

   .    ,   673           14  ;  733   ,   ,    18    ;   731       11-     40 [19 - Hansen, 2005.].         ,  275      20   15 .            .

              .      ,     .    2 , 4   ,     ,    .

    .      10%  ,         6%.      ,           ,   [20 - Hansen, 2005.]. 10%        ,      ,      ,     ,    .

    .     733    ,    .     731    ,   ,      ,    .    ,    , ,  ,    .

     ظ .  ,   ,      ,    .    ,     ,     ,       .

   

     ظ   ,     .

     .        ,   ,         ,    .     , ,     ,     - .

    .      ,    ,  . ,          ,    .        .             .

   .  - ,      ,    .     ,     .

   ,     ,   ; ,    ;   ,   .

   

      ظ          .

     ,   ,       .      ,                  .

   ,     .                .        ,    .        ,      .

 ,      -,       ,       .

    ,          ,         .   ,       ,  ,      .       ,  ,     ,   ,    ,    .

4.   

            ,     .    :     -,           ,      .

     .                   .    ,     .      :      .      .        ,         ,    .   ,  ,     .

    ,    .             ,    600- .        ,    .    ,  ,  ,  ,       ,     15 .  49     41   .   , , ,  ;     500    160  .

      :         .  ,    ,  ,     ,    ,       [21 - Skaff, J. K. Sasanian and Arab-Sasanian Silver Coins from Turfan // Asia Major. 1998.].         ,  ,   ,          .

 ,    ,  ,  ,    . ,       ,   ,     .      ,    ,          .

         .  15-      :    .  ,   ,     .

    .       ,             , ,    ,    .            .             .        .   733 ,    ,          . ,   [22 - Hansen, 2005.].

      ,    : , ,       .  ,     .       .

   

 ,    :  ,    ,    ,  .     .     .

        ,     .  ,        ,        . ظ   ,      ,     .  ,         ,    ,   .    755       ,   ,       [23 - Trombert, . Textiles et tissus sur la Route de la soie. 2000; Hansen, 2005.].

       .     :      ,   ,          .       ,     ,       ,   .

   . ,   ,     .      ,        .    : -   ,       .       .

   ظ 

  :   XV       1498     ,      ,    .   .   ,      ,    ,          .  ,   ,            [24 - Steensgaard, N. The Asian Trade Revolution of the Seventeenth Century: The East India Companies and the Decline of the Caravan Trade. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974.].

   ,      .       ,        .      . ,      , ,        XVI      XVII.  ,         XVIII   [25 - Levi, S. C. India, Russia and the Eighteenth-Century Transformation of the Central Asian Caravan Trade // Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 1999.].  , ,        ,    .

,    .       ,             .    ,            . ,      ظ ,    ,      :  ,       ,       [26 - Rossabi, M. The Decline of the Central Asian Caravan Trade // The Rise of Merchant Empires / ed. J. D. Tracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.].  ,  ,      .

   :    ,      ,  ,      .

 

    ,        .

       ,    :    ,     ,   .       ,            .  ,          .

        ,     ,   .

-,   .    ,   ,    ,    ,         .  ,     ,     :       ,      .

-,    :    ,  .         ,   .

-,    .   ,       .    , ,      ,   .

-,    . -,    ,   ,  ,       .    ,  ,      ,  .

    ,    .      ,     ,  -    ,  ,   ,    .     ,      .    ,      .     .

 

  1904          ,       .     ,       :         ,    ,         . , 15             Heartland:    ,    [27 - Mackinder, H. J. The Geographical Pivot of History // The Geographical Journal. 1904; Mackinder, H. J. Democratic Ideals and Reality. London, 1919.].

     .     ,      ,     .

    :      .      .   :  ,      ,   ,   .    ,                   .    ,      ,            .    ,     .

        .        : ,      ,    ,     ,   . ,      .          :          ,       .  ,   .  8  17    .

       ,   :     ,      ,   .   ,  -    ,       .  ,  ,   ,          ,   ,   .

,           ,  .    ,    .  ,       ,  ,    .       ,       .

    

      .    ,    .   .     .

   .   ,       ,  ,          ,   ,      4 ,    XV ,     .

   .  ,  -  .    :  ,  ,  .   -  ,    ,   ,   .       ,    ,  .

,    .   ,           .

  .      .    5       ,       :    ,        .     ,        :      .

 .   ,       ,            ,    . -       ,       .    ,       .

   .            ,     .   ,        :   ,      .          ,    ,   [28 - CAREC, 2022.].

 ,      .         ,   ,          .  ,    ,    ظ .       ,    .

 .  ظ    ,        .     ,      ,     .     ,      : , ,   .

   ,   , ,   ,      .     .    ,         .

   ,       .             .          2006 ,       2020-      .

   ,          .   ,         :  ,   ,  .    -,   ,  ,       .    ,    :         ,      ,  .        ,   ,      .          ,          .

      ,    .         ,      :     ,     .            .    ,    ,     .

   ,                ,    .     1500     .

ظ           .   ,    ,        :    ,     . -       ,      ,       ,      ,  .  ,  -     ,   ,     .




 2.   


 1604     I      , , ,          (   ,   )      .     ,     .   ,       ,   ,  300  .

     ,         .           ,      ,    ,  .     ,    ,     .        ,    [29 - Aslanian, S. D. From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011.].

               ,   ,   ,   ,       [30 - Aslanian, 2011.].      , , ,         .  ,        ,          :     .

 :        ,      ?

  

     .     ().     ,    ,    .     ().        ,   .     ,   .    , ,    .    [31 - Aslanian, 2011.].

    ,          .   ,     ,       .         .        .     ,    [32 - Aslanian, 2011.].

    .        .   ,        . ,      .

    :     ,        ?        .

      ,   .     ,    ,     ,   ,          .       .       ,    ,     .        ,     .

  

       ,      .

  1682      :        ,   ;     ,   .       217    ,  250 ,    .    ,     [33 - Khachikian, L. The Ledger of the Merchant Hovhannes Joughayetsi // Journal of the Asiatic Society. 1966.].      11   :           .   6  1693   ,      ,     , [34 - Khachikian, 1966.].

    ,        .     .

    .         ,          ,     :  ,  .        ,   ,    [35 - Khachikian, 1966.].  ,         , ,      .  ,         .  ,      ,        .

  .        -,    1683     .  11     ,  , , ,   .  1686                9 370     .  ,        ,    5 .  ,     ,    .   1692    ,  483     5  [36 - Khachikian, 1966.].

  .   ,      ,   ,      70  130%[37 - Khachikian, 1966.]. ,         ,   50%     .     ,      .  11    , 5    ,         .       ,      .

   .      .  -    5  : ,  ,  - ,           .         15,2%  ,       16%[38 - Khachikian, 1966.].   ,    :      ,    .   ,   ,       .     .

      ,  ,  ,  ,  .       .   ,     ,      ,       :   ,    [39 - Khachikian, 1966.].

        .          ,    ,    .

   

       ,      ?

  3  .

   .      .        ,           [40 - Aslanian, 2011.].     ,     .          ,     ,   .   .        .      ,          .      ,    [41 - Khachikian, 1966.].

     .   1690      - .      ,       .       .   , ,      [42 - Khachikian, 1966.].     ,    ,  ,  ,    ,           .       ,    .

 ,     ,       1765 ,      .                     .           ,    ,      .  ,          ,    ,       [43 -     , 1765; : Khachikian, 1966.].    80    ,     ,    ,    .   ,        ,   .

   .          ,     :     ,   ,    .  ,              [44 - Aslanian, 2011.].

        .   1684      1 800     :  ,     ,   .    1692     ,  ,      [45 - Khachikian, 1966.].    .   ,        .  :   ,         .

     . ,  ,    ,         :   ,  ,    ,       ,    ,    .     ,      ,     .

  .             ,     ,  .   ,            ,    .       ,    .

    , ,     . ,    ,    ,    .   ,  -   ,  ,       ,      .    ,   ,    .    ,   ,    :       .      ,     .     ,        .

  

         ,     .    :      ,       .    ,       : 1%      ,  1,25%     , 4,5%        41 , 8%         [46 - Khachikian, 1966.].

     ,  ,    .      ,   ,    .          0,75%  ,   ,   , 20%  ,          [47 - Khachikian, 1966.].

         .       1684 .

    

          ,     ,        ,        ,      [48 - Matthee, R. The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran: Silk for Silver, 16001730. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.].

       ?

,       . ظ     ,         ,    .              .      ,        ,     ,  ,  [49 - Matthee, 1999.].

                 .     ,    ,      .       .      :             .  ,     ,      .



      .

-   XIII  XVI     ,      ,  ,  ,   ,     .                 .   4:     ,    ,       [50 - Dollinger, P. The German Hansa. London: Macmillan, 1970.].     ,  ,       ,    .       ,    ,         ,    .

       ,       :       ,   ,    ,  ,   . ,      ,       .         ,     .     ,     [51 - Dollinger, 1970.].    :            ,      ,  [52 - Dollinger, 1970.].

       .         :       ,       .   ,        ,   .  ,        .

 ,       .         ,         ,  ,    [53 - Dollinger, 1970.].  ,           ,    ,        .   , ,  ,  1 .      :    ,     ,       ,    [54 - Dollinger, 1970.].

        .                 .         1284 ,               [55 - Dollinger, 1970.].     ,     ,   ,        .     ,            .

    ,      ,   .  1347     ,        .        ,     [56 - Dollinger, 1970.].               . ,  ,     ,      .

 

          ,  :     ,     ,        [57 - Chandler, A. D., Jr. The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977.].      .

,   ,      .           .        ,      .

       :        -  ,       .

      :      ,    .

       ,      . ,  ,    .

      .      :     .       :         .         ,    :           .          ,     . .    ,        .

 

     .

  XVI              :  , , ,   ,        .   ,    , , ,  .   , , ,  [58 - Burton, A. The Bukharans: A Dynastic, Diplomatic and Commercial History, 15501702. Richmond: Curzon, 1997.].        ,      ,   ,      .

,        , ,      .    ,       -,        , ,   ,     ,   [59 - Burton, 1997.].           ,      .

     : -     ,      ,   . ,      ,           ,    .       ,        : ,    ,   ,    .

      ,        ,      .      :   , , ,   ,     [60 - Monahan, E. The Merchants of Siberia: Trade in Early Modern Eurasia. Leiden: Brill, 2016.].

    .        :    ,         [61 - Monahan, 2016.].   XVIII             .      .     ,       ,     .

,       ,    ,    ,       .    ,   .

      :  ,        .         .

  .       .    ,   ,      .

    ,   .     ,       .       ,       ,    .  ,    ,   ,    .

   :  ,       ,   ,    - . , ,   ,      ,       ,  .

  ?

,    :    , ,   .   ,   ,    .     ,   .

    .      : ,       ,  ,    .

,         ,    .        .       ,     ,    .

   .          ,    ,  ,  .               ,         .     ,  , ,    .

,  ,     .          .

   .       ,   ,   .    ,       .

  

     ,        .

   .  1494   III   .      ,         .  1598   I        .      ,      .         1669 [62 - Dollinger, 1970.].

   .       ,    :  ,     .

          .         ,   .    .

     .  1722      ,   ,   1747 ,   -,          ,    ,  ,    . ,   ,          .       [63 - Aslanian, 2011.].

       .       ,         .    ,             .     ,       ,      .    ,    ,  ,     .

      .     ,        .    ,    ,     .     , ,       [64 - Aslanian, 2011.].

    ?

   .         ,    ,     . ,     .

   .     ,    .

  ,    :      ,      .  ,    .  ,    ,     ,     .   ,    :  ,   ,     .     ,       ,    .

     .

  .        ,   .  ,          ,     .  ,       .

 .        .    ,     ,      .

,     ,   .          .     ,     :            .

  .    .        ,  .    ?      ?         ?

   ,        . ,      ,    .      ,   .

   ?

:         .     .

     ,     :  ,  ,   ,  .  ,    ,     .

       .

   ,     ,     .         ,           .     ,   .         .

  ,      . ,     ,        .

      ,        .     :     ,       .

  .      30        .                 .




 3.  - 


20  1602     [65 -          (15811795);       .       .]    - .              21 .      .     ,     ,       ,      [66 - Petram, L. The World's First Stock Exchange. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014; Gaastra, F. S. The Dutch East India Company: Expansion and Decline. Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 2003.].       :     .

       .        1 143 ,       6,5  ,   57%  .            :   85 000 [67 - Petram, 2014.].

 -    200  ,   ,          .    XIX    ,    .

         .           .              ,     ,  .

  

 1602       ,     ,    .      .       ,     2-3 .     ,   ,  ,      .      [68 - Gelderblom, O., Jonker J. Completing a Financial Revolution: The Finance of the Dutch East India Trade and the Rise of the Amsterdam Capital Market, 15951612 // Journal of Economic History. 2004.].

     .      ,   ,    .     2-3 ,        ,  ,  ,      .         :  ,  ,     .    ,   ,      .

,     :     ,    .         ,      ,   ,    ,     .      ,  ,  ,     [69 - Gelderblom, O., de Jong A., Jonker J. The Formative Years of the Modern Corporation: The Dutch East India Company VOC, 16021623 // Journal of Economic History. 2013.].

   .    :        .   ,      .

   .  10       ,       .    1612            [70 - Gelderblom, de Jong, Jonker, 2013.].   ,    ,    .

    .        ,             .

  .       ,    ;               .          5 ,    5          .      .

 

,       . ,    1602 ,      1612-,   1612   ,      .

     ,    ,       .   1609    .    :        ,     .    ,  ,  ,      [71 - Gelderblom, O., de Jong A., Jonker J. An Admiralty for Asia: Isaac le Maire and Conflicting Conceptions about the Corporate Governance of the VOC // The Origins of Shareholder Advocacy / ed. J. G. S. Koppell. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.].      :          .

  .  16101612      162,5%   ,       ,     [72 - Gelderblom, de Jong, Jonker, 2013.].

   .         ,     .        ;  1610     [73 - Petram, 2014.].

     .        ,           . ,  ,       ,    - .              [74 - Petram, 2014.].

     .    ,  -    .      ,     ,       .   ,       ,   ,         .   ,    .

   

     ,     ?

    .                .      .      ,  ,     .       ,         .

,    .  1609      400 000   ,       100 000.  1617      :           .   [75 - Gelderblom, de Jong, Jonker, 2011.].

  1605            .  1621        ,       .      ,     [76 - Gaastra, 2003.].

    .              ,       .    ,      .     ,       [77 - Knaap, G. Kruidnagelen en christenen: De VOC en de bevolking van Ambon, 16561696. Dordrecht: Foris, 1987.].      :          ,       [78 - Loth, V. C. Pioneers and Perkeniers: The Banda Islands in the 17th Century // Cakalele. 1995.].

       .   ,   ,  ,        .        :    ,      ,       .

    .             .     - .

    .  ,   ,  ,   .    ,    .      :   ,   ,   .

    ,      ,       ,    .

    .    :  ,  ,   .  ,   ,   .         :      ,    .

     .  ,  ,      .       ,   ,           .

  

    ,   .

 1625          7 700 ,  1700    25 000,  1750-  35 000,   ,   1780-    27 000.      3 000   1625 , 18 000  1700-  25 000  1750-[79 - Gaastra, 2003; East Indies // Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2004.].    125         8 .

   ,    .        ,       .      :  40%    60% [80 - East Indies, 2004; Lucassen, J. A Multinational and its Labor Force: The Dutch East India Company, 15951795 // International Labor and Working-Class History. 2004.].

       , , ,   .        .      .

   ,     :     ,   ,     .    :      ,      .

  .        ,          .     ,     .

  

     .  16211700     327       290 .  17001780      450 ,     570 [81 - Gaastra, 2003; de Vries J., van der Woude A. The First Modern Economy: Success, Failure, and Perseverance of the Dutch Economy, 15001815. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.].

 ,   80      40%,    ,   .      ,    .    :       .

  .        18% ,     10%,   1730-  1780-   23%.        6  3,4%[82 - de Vries, van der Woude, 1997.].

     .  1690  1760         ,    .  1730-       .  1730-  ,     ,      :  1730  1780        4  ,        20 [83 - de Vries, van der Woude, 1997.].

 ,    ,   .      ?         ,    ,    .

     .      1609 ,   .  100             :    ,    .

  

     .  1730-    ,    .

     .    ,     ,     ,   .

    .      ,       , ,   ,  .          .

    ,    .

  .  -  17801784              [84 - de Vries, van der Woude, 1997.].

 1796      ,  31  1799     ,    .     [85 - Gaastra, 2003.].

  

 ,      .     ,   ,      .       .        XVIII .  1730-    23% ,       1690-.     ,     .

    .           :   , -     ,         [86 - East Indies, 2004; de Vries, van der Woude, 1997.].

      .       ,     .      ,      ( ),     .       ,  ,       ,  .

        .          ,      .    ,     .        ,      .

    .       ,        .        ,      ,    ,    [87 - de Vries, van der Woude, 1997; East Indies, 2004.].

 

     - .    1600 ,     ,      .      : ,      .         [88 - Chaudhuri, K. N. The English East India Company: The Study of an Early Joint-Stock Company, 16001640. London: Frank Cass, 1965.].

          .      1757       ,   1765           .            ,   [89 - Bowen, H. V. The Business of Empire: The East India Company and Imperial Britain, 17561833. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.].

   . ,   ,   .      .     ,     ,      .  1858 ,    ,      ,   1874     [90 - Robins, N. The Corporation That Changed the World: How the East India Company Shaped the Modern Multinational. London: Pluto Press, 2006.].

 ,          .    ,      .      ,    .             .         .          ,   [91 - East Indies, 2004.].

    

      .     ,   :     ,    .     ,   ,   ,     .

 .   -     :     ?   ,     .

       ,    . ,      ,      ,    :   ,   .

,      ,     ,  .      .      ,  ,      .      ,      .

    5  .

    .         ,   :    ,    .       ,   ,    ,  , ,  .

    .      ?   ,     .   ,   .

      . ,     ,  .      ,     .

    .       :       ,      ,    .    ,       ,      .

    .           1609 .        ,     .  -        ,     .

        ,      . ,  ,     ,        .

          ,     .             .       ,       ,    .    ,    ,    .      ,    ,  ,    .     .

         ,     .         .

     ,     .       .          .

 -     ,     .             ,      .

   ,      .    ,  ,   ,     .     .   ,      ,    :  ,       .

   :      ,     ,      .

    .     .   ,    ,       ,   .          .

,   .  :   ,           ,       ?     ,     .

 -    :         .              .      ,   ,  ,     .           .




 4.   


26  1956       -    Ideal X.        58       35  .  5     ,         .      8 ,             [92 - Levinson, M. The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006.].

               , ,       .    ,       [93 - Levinson, 2006.].

    .   ,        :        ,     .     1970-        ,    ,      , .

,   

   ,   ?

  1950-        ,   .    ,      :   ,   ,   .    ,   .                   .  ,            ,  ,  .

           ,  ,  .    ,           1956   5  83 ,          16 [94 - Levinson, 2006.].      ,    :     30 .

    : , ,  .      .

  .    ,   , , , ,   .       ,   .     ,       ,   .          .     ,     .

      .    ,     ,         .       ,     ,   .     ,      .   ,    ,   ,     .

   

   ?  ?  .

          , ,      .       .      ,      ,      .      ,         .            .

    .    ,   .   ,        .  ,    .       .   ,   ,     ,  ,  .     ,   .     ,       .

     ,             .     ,       .    -    ,   [95 - Levinson, 2006.].      :      ,      ,     .

  .             .         90 .  :     ,   ,       .    ,     :          ,    . 20        ,     ,       .

  

  1950-    ,    ,   .  Sea-Land   35 ,    .  Matson,    ,  24 .  Grace Line  17[96 - Levinson, 2006.].       ,     .        .

      . ,    ,      ,    ,      .     ,   ,   .

      .  1958         ,          ,    .      ,   ,  ,     .  1961     : 10, 20, 30  40 .  35  Sea-Land,  24  Matson     [97 - Levinson, 2006.].    ,   , .

  .   ,            .  1960-   -             .   1968     ISO 668,  ,   ,      [98 - Levinson, 2006.].

   ,   .          .  .   ,     ,   ,   ,    ,           .     ,     : ,    ,   .

 ,    ,    .  -  ,      ,         . ,   ,      .   - .

  .     :       ,        .     ,   ,    ,   .

    

     ,     ,         ,      .      -,       . Matson    ,  .

     .     ,  ,   ,       .      ,          10   .         1966 ,     [99 - Levinson, 2006.].     :           ,   .

     .    ,   .    ,      ,       .        ,   ,   .          ,      .         .      .

  

      .

 1967  1973        Sea-Land       1 200   [100 - Levinson, 2006.].        :  ,  ,  ,  .     ,   ,       .

 , ,   ,  ,     .     ,      ,   [101 - Levinson, 2006.].  ,        ,     .

,             ,     .   ,        ,      ,      .     ,         ,     .

   

       :  ,  ,    .         ,     .          .      20 .

       .  -    ,   ,     .           ,          .      ,    :        ,      .

 ,  ,  .  ,             :    ,      [102 - Levinson, 2006.].     ,  .     ,  ,    ,  .

  ,    ,     ,   -.  ,       ,   .   1960         :     ,   ,     [103 - Fairley, L. Facing Mechanization: The West Coast Longshore Plan. 1979.].          .           ,     .

       ,     .        ,         [104 - Fairley, 1979.].     ,     .

              19641965 ,        [105 - Monaco, K. Labor at the Ports: A Comparison of the ILA and ILWU. 2005.].    ,   .       ,  ,       ,      ,      [106 - Monaco, 2005.].

   .  1960  1970         16 002  14 381,     .                 27 998  18 197   [107 - Fairley, 1979; Monaco, 2005.].

      ,  :      .   ,          .         .             ,           ,  .      .     ,   ,        ,      ,    .

 

      :      .           .

         .  ,   ,      ,      .     1965    ,   1967       [108 -   : Final Report of the Committee of Inquiry under the Rt. Hon. Lord Devlin into Certain Matters Concerning the Port Transport Industry. Cmnd 2734. London, 1965.].      ,         .

              .    ,           [109 - Lindop, F. The Dockers and the 1971 Industrial Relations Act // Historical Studies in Industrial Relations. 1998.].     .        .

       .   1972                 .    ,  ,   ,   40  90  [110 - Lindop, 1998.].

   ,    .            ,    .         .   1967        ,   1980       [111 - Levinson, 2006.].        ,     ,    1970-    [112 - Levinson, 2006.].

  .               ,    .     ,         .       ,      ,   ,     ,    .

 : ,   ,  .               . ,     ,   .     .

,  

    ,    .

-     .     , ,   -,    :  ,        .     .     ,  , ,     ,     .      .

     .  1962         ,    :   ,       .   .  -      9%  1956   18%  1960-.  1966   -    ,   1970-    .  1970    -  63%      [113 - Levinson, 2006.].

-    .  1967  1976             [114 - Levinson, 2006.].   .    ,      :   .   ,   ,       .

     .           . ,   ,   ,     .

  

     .

  .  - ,          ,   -  5 ,  1970  1975 , .       [115 - Bridgman, B. Why Containerization Didn't Reduce Ocean Shipping Costs, At First. Working paper, 2021.].      :  -  -     90%[116 - Levinson, 2006.].

    .

          -   1970  1975    7%,   1976     1954 .            1970-,    20      [117 - Bridgman, 2021.].

,    ,   .     :    ,       ,   .         .        ,   ,    [118 - Bridgman, 2021.].

    :   ,    .   ,       ,       . ,        ,   ,         .  ,  ,   ,   ,    .

  - ,  .        ,        1622%     [119 - Cosar, A. K., Demir B. Shipping inside the Box: Containerization and Trade // Journal of International Economics. 2018.].    ,      :    ,        .

  .          .     ,         :  ,  ,  .    ,        ,     .

  

    :   ,   ,   ,    .   ,    .      ,      1956 ,     20 .

     .    ,         .     20      .

    .        ,       .    ,       ,           .                 .

,     ,   ,    ,  ,      .  ,      .                ,        .    ,     ,  ,    ,  .

    

     ,      .           .

    .      .     ,     , ,   .   ,   :       ,      .

     .       ,   ,    .    ,    ,       .      .  ,   ,       .     :             .   ,         ,      [120 -         ( ). , 1924,   1968  (- );        (UCP 600). :   , 2007.].

  .      ,    ;   ,  ;  ,  .   ,    ,     .

  :        ,  ,     ,  ,    ,    .   ,     ,   ,    .        .

   

     .

     ,    .   :  ,     ,    ,         ,      .  ,    ,  .   ,      .

    .  ,   .  , , , ,      ,     .    .

    .     :       ,        .  ,         ,   . , ,    .   ,     ,  . ,       ,      .

    

         .   .

        ,     .   ,       .      ,     .

    .         .       . ,    ,      .          ,  ,  -     .

 ,     .            .      .  ,            .         :   ,  ,   .

    .  2006     /   ,     [121 -   /. 2006.].        :   ,          [122 -  ; CIT.    , 2020- .].

 ,     .     ,   1960-         ,        :     2006 ,       2020-      .

  ,     .  ,           ,     .       ,   ,          .      ,     ,    .

  .       ,    ,           . ,    ,     ,     .




  .


   .

   ,     (https://www.litres.ru/book/ulukman-mamytov/vidimaia-ruka-shiolkovogo-puti-74578217/)  .

      Visa, MasterCard, Maestro,    ,   ,     ,  PayPal, WebMoney, ., QIWI ,       .



notes








1


, . .          . 1966.




2


, . .         . ., 1958.




3


, . .   . , 1859.




4


- -  . , 2022.




5


- -  , 2022.




6


    . , 2023.




7


    , 2020.




8


      , 2024.




9


        , 2025.




10


CAREC. Corridor Performance Measurement and Monitoring. Annual Report 2022.




11


CAREC, 2022.




12


Sims-Williams, N. The Sogdian Ancient Letters. 2001.




13


Udovitch, A. L. Bankers without Banks: Commerce, Banking and Society in the Islamic World of the Middle Ages // The Dawn of Modern Banking. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979.




14


Udovitch, 1979.




15


Hansen, V., Rong X. How the Residents of Turfan used Textiles as Money, 273796 CE // Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 2013.




16


Hansen, Rong, 2013.




17


Hansen, V. The Impact of the Silk Road Trade on a Local Community: The Turfan Oasis, 500800 // Les Sogdiens en Chine. Paris, 2005.




18


Hansen, 2005.




19


Hansen, 2005.




20


Hansen, 2005.




21


Skaff, J. K. Sasanian and Arab-Sasanian Silver Coins from Turfan // Asia Major. 1998.




22


Hansen, 2005.




23


Trombert, . Textiles et tissus sur la Route de la soie. 2000; Hansen, 2005.




24


Steensgaard, N. The Asian Trade Revolution of the Seventeenth Century: The East India Companies and the Decline of the Caravan Trade. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974.




25


Levi, S. C. India, Russia and the Eighteenth-Century Transformation of the Central Asian Caravan Trade // Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 1999.




26


Rossabi, M. The Decline of the Central Asian Caravan Trade // The Rise of Merchant Empires / ed. J. D. Tracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.




27


Mackinder, H. J. The Geographical Pivot of History // The Geographical Journal. 1904; Mackinder, H. J. Democratic Ideals and Reality. London, 1919.




28


CAREC, 2022.




29


Aslanian, S. D. From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011.




30


Aslanian, 2011.




31


Aslanian, 2011.




32


Aslanian, 2011.




33


Khachikian, L. The Ledger of the Merchant Hovhannes Joughayetsi // Journal of the Asiatic Society. 1966.




34


Khachikian, 1966.




35


Khachikian, 1966.




36


Khachikian, 1966.




37


Khachikian, 1966.




38


Khachikian, 1966.




39


Khachikian, 1966.




40


Aslanian, 2011.




41


Khachikian, 1966.




42


Khachikian, 1966.




43


    , 1765; : Khachikian, 1966.




44


Aslanian, 2011.




45


Khachikian, 1966.




46


Khachikian, 1966.




47


Khachikian, 1966.




48


Matthee, R. The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran: Silk for Silver, 16001730. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.




49


Matthee, 1999.




50


Dollinger, P. The German Hansa. London: Macmillan, 1970.




51


Dollinger, 1970.




52


Dollinger, 1970.




53


Dollinger, 1970.




54


Dollinger, 1970.




55


Dollinger, 1970.




56


Dollinger, 1970.




57


Chandler, A. D., Jr. The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977.




58


Burton, A. The Bukharans: A Dynastic, Diplomatic and Commercial History, 15501702. Richmond: Curzon, 1997.




59


Burton, 1997.




60


Monahan, E. The Merchants of Siberia: Trade in Early Modern Eurasia. Leiden: Brill, 2016.




61


Monahan, 2016.




62


Dollinger, 1970.




63


Aslanian, 2011.




64


Aslanian, 2011.




65


         (15811795);       .       .




66


Petram, L. The World's First Stock Exchange. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014; Gaastra, F. S. The Dutch East India Company: Expansion and Decline. Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 2003.




67


Petram, 2014.




68


Gelderblom, O., Jonker J. Completing a Financial Revolution: The Finance of the Dutch East India Trade and the Rise of the Amsterdam Capital Market, 15951612 // Journal of Economic History. 2004.




69


Gelderblom, O., de Jong A., Jonker J. The Formative Years of the Modern Corporation: The Dutch East India Company VOC, 16021623 // Journal of Economic History. 2013.




70


Gelderblom, de Jong, Jonker, 2013.




71


Gelderblom, O., de Jong A., Jonker J. An Admiralty for Asia: Isaac le Maire and Conflicting Conceptions about the Corporate Governance of the VOC // The Origins of Shareholder Advocacy / ed. J. G. S. Koppell. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.




72


Gelderblom, de Jong, Jonker, 2013.




73


Petram, 2014.




74


Petram, 2014.




75


Gelderblom, de Jong, Jonker, 2011.




76


Gaastra, 2003.




77


Knaap, G. Kruidnagelen en christenen: De VOC en de bevolking van Ambon, 16561696. Dordrecht: Foris, 1987.




78


Loth, V. C. Pioneers and Perkeniers: The Banda Islands in the 17th Century // Cakalele. 1995.




79


Gaastra, 2003; East Indies // Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2004.




80


East Indies, 2004; Lucassen, J. A Multinational and its Labor Force: The Dutch East India Company, 15951795 // International Labor and Working-Class History. 2004.




81


Gaastra, 2003; de Vries J., van der Woude A. The First Modern Economy: Success, Failure, and Perseverance of the Dutch Economy, 15001815. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.




82


de Vries, van der Woude, 1997.




83


de Vries, van der Woude, 1997.




84


de Vries, van der Woude, 1997.




85


Gaastra, 2003.




86


East Indies, 2004; de Vries, van der Woude, 1997.




87


de Vries, van der Woude, 1997; East Indies, 2004.




88


Chaudhuri, K. N. The English East India Company: The Study of an Early Joint-Stock Company, 16001640. London: Frank Cass, 1965.




89


Bowen, H. V. The Business of Empire: The East India Company and Imperial Britain, 17561833. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.




90


Robins, N. The Corporation That Changed the World: How the East India Company Shaped the Modern Multinational. London: Pluto Press, 2006.




91


East Indies, 2004.




92


Levinson, M. The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006.




93


Levinson, 2006.




94


Levinson, 2006.




95


Levinson, 2006.




96


Levinson, 2006.




97


Levinson, 2006.




98


Levinson, 2006.




99


Levinson, 2006.




100


Levinson, 2006.




101


Levinson, 2006.




102


Levinson, 2006.




103


Fairley, L. Facing Mechanization: The West Coast Longshore Plan. 1979.




104


Fairley, 1979.




105


Monaco, K. Labor at the Ports: A Comparison of the ILA and ILWU. 2005.




106


Monaco, 2005.




107


Fairley, 1979; Monaco, 2005.




108


  : Final Report of the Committee of Inquiry under the Rt. Hon. Lord Devlin into Certain Matters Concerning the Port Transport Industry. Cmnd 2734. London, 1965.




109


Lindop, F. The Dockers and the 1971 Industrial Relations Act // Historical Studies in Industrial Relations. 1998.




110


Lindop, 1998.




111


Levinson, 2006.




112


Levinson, 2006.




113


Levinson, 2006.




114


Levinson, 2006.




115


Bridgman, B. Why Containerization Didn't Reduce Ocean Shipping Costs, At First. Working paper, 2021.




116


Levinson, 2006.




117


Bridgman, 2021.




118


Bridgman, 2021.




119


Cosar, A. K., Demir B. Shipping inside the Box: Containerization and Trade // Journal of International Economics. 2018.




120


        ( ). , 1924,   1968  (- );        (UCP 600). :   , 2007.




121


  /. 2006.




122


 ; CIT.    , 2020- .


