Academic Reading. Key Terms and Concepts: A Glossary. A Trilingual Academic Reference (English • Kazakh • Russian)

F

Factographic information / Фактографиялық ақпарат / Фактографическая информация

Specific, verifiable data contained in an academic text: figures, dates, names, events, statistical indicators, and measurement results. In reading, factographic information requires verification of accuracy, reliability of the source, and correctness of interpretation; it is one of the five types of academic knowledge according to the series classification.

False dichotomy / Жалған дихотомия / Ложная дихотомия

A logical fallacy in which a complex problem is artificially reduced to two mutually exclusive options when intermediate or alternative positions in fact exist. Recognising false dichotomies in academic texts is an important skill of critical thinking.

Features / Ерекшеліктер / Особенности

The distinguishing characteristics, specific properties, or typological markers of an academic text, technique, method, or reading strategy. Analysis of a source or tool’s features enables a precise determination of its scope of applicability and the conditions under which its use is most effective.

Feynman technique / Фейнман әдісі / Метод Фейнмана (See also: Feynman method – synonym)

A method of deep knowledge acquisition and self-testing developed by Richard Feynman, involving the explanation of a learned concept or theory in plain language, as if addressing someone without specialist knowledge. It identifies gaps in understanding and requires their elimination through renewed engagement with the source.

Feynman technique / Фейнман техникасы / Техника Фейнмана (See: Метод Фейнмана / Фейнман әдісі / Feynman technique)

A method for the deep acquisition of academic content based on four steps: selecting a concept, explaining it in simple terms (to a “child”), identifying gaps in understanding, returning to the source, and simplifying the explanation. In the glossary, “Техника Фейнмана” and “Метод Фейнмана” are treated as full synonyms.

Fiction literature / Көркем әдебиет / Художественная литература

Literary texts are based on invention and imagination, as distinct from non-fiction academic texts. In the context of the series, it is mentioned in connection with differences in reading strategies: the reading of fiction is directed primarily towards aesthetic and emotional engagement, whereas academic reading is directed towards analytical and critical comprehension.

Figurative language / Бейнелі сөйлеу / Образная речь

Linguistic means used beyond their literal meaning to convey the figurative, symbolic, or metaphorical content of a text: metaphor, simile, allegory, irony, and euphemism. The recognition of figurative language in academic texts enables the reader to achieve a deeper comprehension of the content and correctly interpret the author’s rhetorical strategies.

Final source evaluation / Дереккөзді қорытынды бағалау / Итоговая оценка источника

The concluding stage of the critical analysis of an academic source, at which the reader delivers an integrated judgement on its quality, relevance, and suitability for specific research purposes. It synthesises evaluation according to the criteria of authority, currency, credibility, accuracy, and the source’s purpose.

Five categories of knowledge / Бес білім санаты / Пять категорий знания (Author’s methodological term from the book series)

An authorial classification model systematising the types of knowledge readers work with in academic reading: conceptual, factographic, procedural, metacognitive, and integrative. It enables the differentiation of reading goals and the selection of appropriate strategies for processing each type of information.

Flashcard method / Карточкалар әдісі / Метод карточек

A method of active repetition in which key concepts, definitions, or questions are written on one side of a card and the corresponding answers or explanations on the other. It provides intensive practice in active recall and effectively combines with the principles of spaced repetition.

Flashcards / Флеш-карточкалар / Флеш-карточки

Double-sided cards for active memorisation: on one side – a term, question, or concept; on the other – a definition, answer, or explanation. They are applied in the methodology of spaced repetition and retrieval practice; they are among the most empirically confirmed tools for long-term retention of academic content.

Formatting / Форматтау / Форматирование

The visual presentation of an academic text through typographic, spatial, and colour means: headings, bold and italic font, bulleted and numbered lists, indentations, and margins. In academic reading, formatting provides structural information about the content’s logic and hierarchy; the ability to read it accelerates navigation and improves comprehension.

Framing / Фреймдеу / Фреймирование

The process of constructing a conceptual “frame” context determines how a problem, phenomenon, or argument is presented and interpreted by the audience. In academic reading, the analysis of framing reveals which aspects of the problem the author foregrounds and which remain in the background, forming a particular interpretative disposition in the reader.

Fundamental concept / Фундаменталды ұғым / Фундаментальное понятие

A foundational conceptual unit of a discipline or theoretical system, without whose acquisition the comprehension of more complex ideas and constructions is impossible. In academic reading, the identification of fundamental concepts is a primary task: they form the conceptual framework to which more specialised knowledge is successively attached.

G

Gap map / Олқылықтар картасы / Карта пробелов

A visual or tabular tool that records identified knowledge gaps, unresolved research questions, and areas insufficiently covered in the literature studied. It serves as a strategic guide in planning one’s own research and selecting sources for further study. To use this tool actively, ask yourself after finishing an article: “What did I still need to know?” or “What real question remains unanswered for me?” Listing these reflections grounds the process in practical action and helps to identify specific directions for further inquiry.

Gist / Мәні / Суть (cf.: Abstract – formal genre)

A brief, informal expression of the principal meaning or main idea of an academic text, formulated by the reader in their own words. Unlike an abstract, it is not a genre of academic writing but represents the cognitive outcome of comprehension – what the reader has extracted as the most important element from the source.

Goals matrix / Мақсаттар матрицасы / Матрица целей

A structured academic reading planning tool that enables specific reading goals to be aligned with corresponding sources, strategies, and time resources. It ensures the purposefulness and organisation of research work with literature.

Growth mindset / Өсуге деген ұстаным / Установка на рост

The belief that intellectual abilities, academic skills, and reading competencies are not fixed but develop through effort, purposeful practice, and learning from mistakes. The concept was developed by C. Dweck; in academic contexts, a growth mindset constitutes the psychological foundation for forming productive learning strategies and overcoming reading difficulties.

Guided acceleration / Бағытталған жеделдету / Направляемое ускорение

A technique for developing reading speed in which the reader uses a physical or visual pointer to smoothly and purposefully accelerate the movement of the eyes across the text. It reduces regressions, trains peripheral vision, and gradually widens the fixation zone while maintaining comprehension.

H

Hasty generalisation / Асығыс жалпылама / Поспешное обобщение

A logical fallacy in which a broad conclusion is formulated on the basis of an insufficient number of cases, a non-representative sample, or a limited set of examples. In academic reading, recognising hasty generalisations is a necessary skill for the critical evaluation of the validity of an author’s conclusions and generalisations.

Hierarchical system / Иерархиялық жүйе / Иерархическая система

A structure for organising knowledge or information in which elements are arranged according to levels of significance, subordination, or generality. In academic texts, hierarchical systems are manifested in classifications, taxonomies, and argumentative structures; their visualisation facilitates the comprehension of complex material.

Hierarchy of evidence / Дәйектемелер иерархиясы / Иерархия доказательств

A classification system that ranks types of research data according to their degree of methodological reliability and evidential strength. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses typically occupy the upper levels of the hierarchy, while expert opinions and individual case studies occupy the lower levels. It is used in the critical evaluation of sources.

Highlighting / Ерекшелеу / Выделение

(See also: Active highlighting; Selective highlighting; Highlighting and underlining) – A technique for marking significant passages in a text using colour or other graphic means in order to enable their rapid identification upon returning to the source. The effectiveness of highlighting depends on its selectivity: marking should capture key ideas rather than reproduce the content of entire paragraphs.

Highlighting and underlining / Ерекшелеу және асты сызу / Выделение и подчёркивание

A combined annotation technique that pairs colour marking with underlining to differentiate categories of significant information. Using both tools within a unified symbol system increases the structural quality of engagement with a text and facilitates its subsequent analysis.

Highlighting legend / Ерекшелеу легендасы / Легенда выделения

A personal or standardised scheme of correspondence between colours, symbols, and categories of information used by the reader when annotating a text. The presence of a legend ensures the consistency and interpretability of the highlighting system when returning to a source.

Highlighting paralysis / Ерекшелеу параличі / Паралич выделения

A counterproductive reading practice in which the reader marks excessively large passages of text owing to an inability to selectively evaluate the significance of information. It results in the loss of the ability to annotate: the text becomes overloaded with highlights that prove unhelpful when returning to the source.

Hybrid strategy / Гибридті стратегия / Гибридная стратегия

An integrated approach to academic reading that combines elements of several methods and strategies into a single personalised system for engaging with texts. A hybrid strategy is developed that takes into account the reader’s individual characteristics, the reading purpose, and the specific nature of the source.

Hyperlinks / Гиперсілтемелер / Гиперссылки

Interactive elements of digital text that enable instant navigation to related sources, sections, or resources. In the context of academic reading, hyperlinks expand the possibilities for working with sources but require strategic attention management to avoid information overload.

Hypothesis / Болжам / Гипотеза

A preliminary, testable proposition about the nature of the relationship between phenomena or the causes of the phenomenon under investigation, formulated on the basis of available data. In academic texts, a hypothesis defines the direction of research and determines the criteria for evaluating its results.

I

Illusion of understanding / Түсінудің иллюзиясы / Иллюзия понимания

A cognitive trap in which the reader mistakenly believes they have understood a text when, in reality, they have only achieved superficial familiarity with its content. It arises during passive reading, excessive highlighting, or in the absence of self-testing. It is overcome through active recall and reflection. To counter this illusion, pause after reading a paragraph and try to explain its meaning aloud in your own words. This metacognitive checkpoint reveals gaps in understanding and deepens genuine comprehension.

Imaginary dialogue / Ойдан шығарылған диалог / Воображаемый диалог

A reflective technique in which the reader mentally engages in dialogue with the author of a text, posing questions, raising objections, requesting clarifications, and formulating their own position. It activates critical thinking and deepens engagement with academic texts. To begin, try asking yourself a starter question, such as: What hidden assumption drives the author here? Using a ready-made question stem can make it easier to start this internal dialogue and encourage active critique.

Imagine / Қиялдау / Воображать (шаг 2) (Step 2 of the RIDA strategy: Read – Imagine – Describe – Add; see also: RIDA strategy)

The second stage of the RIDA strategy is when the reader constructs a mental image or visual model of the passage just read. It activates imaginative thinking and promotes deeper encoding of information in memory.

Immediate reaction comments / Жедел реакция түсініктемелері / Комментарии немедленной реакции

Spontaneous written reactions by the reader to specific passages of a text, recorded at the moment of first reading: surprise, agreement, disagreement, questions, or emotional response. They reflect the reader’s immediate engagement with the text and serve as source material for subsequent analytical annotation.

Implications / Салдарлар / Импликации

The logically consequent but not explicitly stated corollaries of the claims, arguments, or conclusions of an academic text. Identifying implications requires the ability to read between the lines and is indicative of a high level of critical comprehension of a source.

Implicit / Жасырын / Имплицитный

A characteristic of a claim, meaning, or assumption that is not explicitly stated in a text but is implied and can be inferred through critical analysis. In academic reading, the ability to recognise implicit elements of a text is a key skill of deep comprehension.

Implicit assumptions / Жасырын болжамдар / Скрытые допущения

Unverified and often unrecognised premises underlying the argumentation of an academic text, which the author accepts as self-evident and does not consider it necessary to justify. The identification of implicit assumptions is a crucial critical reading skill, enabling evaluation of the logical validity and vulnerable points of the author’s position. A practical way to operationalise this skill is to consistently ask during reading: What silent premise have I just accepted? Making this metacognitive question a regular habit encourages real-time interrogation of implicit assumptions and strengthens analytical engagement with the text.

Implicit propositions / Жасырын пікірлер / Неявные утверждения

Claims, assumptions, or positions present in an academic text implicitly: they are not explicitly formulated by the author but follow logically from the claims, choice of terminology, or structure of the argumentation. Identifying implicit propositions requires critical reading skills and indicates deep analytical comprehension of a text.

Inclusive environment / Инклюзивтік орта / Инклюзивная среда

An educational space that ensures equal access to academic resources, reading strategies, and learning tools for all participants in the educational process, regardless of their individual characteristics, needs, or level of preparation. It is a principle of contemporary academic pedagogy.

Individual approach / Жеке тәсіл / Индивидуальный подход

A principle of organising academic reading and learning that involves adapting methods, strategies, and tools to the unique characteristics, goals, and needs of a specific reader or learner. It ensures maximum effectiveness of the learning process through personalisation.

Individual needs / Жеке қажеттіліктер / Индивидуальные потребности

The specific educational, cognitive, or practical requirements of a particular reader that determine the choice of reading strategies, annotation formats, and tools for working with texts. Taking individual needs into account is the foundation of a personalised approach to academic reading and learning.

Inferential statistics / Инференциалды статистика / Инференциальная статистика

A set of statistical methods that enable reasoned conclusions about a population to be drawn on the basis of the analysis of sample data. In academic reading, an understanding of inferential statistics is necessary for the critical evaluation of the reliability and generalisability of quantitative research findings.

Information environment / Ақпараттық орта / Информационная среда

The totality of information resources, channels, tools, and practices within which the academic activity of a researcher or student takes place. The contemporary information environment is characterised by a high density of digital sources, which requires developed media literacy skills and the critical evaluation of information.

Information overload / Ақпараттық шамадан тыс жүктелу / Информационная перегрузка

A state of cognitive stress arising from the simultaneous exposure to an excessive volume of information that exceeds the capacity for its effective processing. In the context of academic reading, information overload reduces comprehension quality, impairs decision-making, and requires the application of attention management strategies and source prioritisation.

Information synthesis / Ақпаратты синтездеу / Синтез информации

The operational process of processing and combining specific facts, data, and claims from multiple sources into a coherent analytical account. Unlike knowledge synthesis, the emphasis shifts to working with specific information rather than the conceptual reconsideration of the subject field.

Inquiry-based questioning / Зерттеушілік сұрақтар қою / Исследовательское вопрошание

A pedagogical and research practice of continuously generating questions in the course of engaging with an academic text, data, or problem. It is the driving force of research thinking and presupposes a reflective, open attitude towards knowledge, not limited to the search for a single correct answer.

Insight / Жаңа түсінік / Инсайт

A sudden and holistic realisation of meaning, connection, or solution arising in the course of deep engagement with an academic text. An insight is distinguished from gradual comprehension by its immediacy and integrative character: the reader simultaneously perceives several elements as a unified whole.

Integrated knowledge / Біріктірілген білім / Интегрированное знание

A synthesised understanding arising from the successful merging of new information with existing knowledge, experience, and conceptual frameworks. The formation of integrated knowledge is the ultimate goal of academic reading and an indicator of deep comprehension.

Integrated knowledge map / Білімнің интеграцияланған картасы / Интегрированная карта знаний

A static visual artefact representing a completed system of interconnected knowledge, concepts, and sources on a particular topic. It is the final product of analytical and synthetic work with academic literature and can be used as a reference tool in further research.

Integrated visual map / Кіріктіруші визуалды карта / Интегрированная визуальная карта