The Warfare of Science
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106
For this syllogism, see Figuier, L'Alchimie et les Alchimistes, pp. 106, 107. For careful appreciation of Becher's position in the history of chemistry, see Kopp, Ansichten über die Aufgabe der Chemie, etc., von Geber bis Stahl, Braunschweig, 1875, pp. 201, et seq.
107
For Tertullian's views, see the De Anima, chap. x. For views of St. Augustine, see the De Civ. Dei, book xxii., chap. 24.
108
For Boniface VIII. and his interdiction of dissections, see Buckle's Posthumous Works, vol. ii., p. 567. For injurious effects of this ecclesiastical hostility to anatomy upon the development of art, see Woltman, Holbein and His Time, pp. 266, 267. For an excellent statement of the true relation of the medical profession to religious questions, see Prof. Acland, General Relations of Medicine in Modern Times, Oxford, 1868. For thoughtful and witty remarks on the struggle at a recent period, see Maury, L'Ancienne Académie des Sciences, Paris, 1864, p. 148. Maury says: "La faculté n'aimait pas à avoir affaire aux théologiens qui procèdent par anathèmes beaucoup plus que par analyses."
109
For uncritical praise of Arnold de Villa Nova, see Figuier, L'Alchimie et les Alchimistes, 3ème edit. For undue blame, see Hoefer, Histoire de la Chimie, Paris, 1842, vol. i., p. 386. For a more broad and fair judgment, see Kopp, Geschichte der Chemie, Braunschweig, 1843, vol. i., p. 66, and vol. ii., p. 185. Also, Pouchet, Histoire des Sciences Naturelles au Moyen Age, Paris, 1853, pp. 52, et seq. Also, Draper, Int. Dev. of Europe, p. 421. Whewell, Hist. of the Induct. Sciences, vol. i., p. 235; vol. viii., p. 36. Frédault, Hist. de la Médecine, vol. i., p. 204.
110
Renan, Averroès et l'Averroisme, Paris, 1867, pp. 327, 333, 335. For a perfectly just statement of the only circumstances which can justify the charge of "atheism," see Dr. Deems's article in Popular Science Monthly, February, 1876.
111
Whewell, vol. iii., p. 328, says, rather loosely, that Mundinus "dissected at Bologna in 1315." How different his idea of dissection was from that introduced by Vesalius, may be seen by Cuvier's careful statement that the entire number of dissections by Mundinus was three. The usual statement is that it was two. See Cuvier, Hist. des Sci. Nat., tome iii., p. 7; also, Sprengel, Frédault, and Hallam; also, Littré, Médecine et Médecins, chap. on anatomy. For a very full statement of the agency of Mundinus in the progress of anatomy, see Portal, Hist. de l'Anatomie et de la Chirurgérie, vol. i., pp. 209-216.
112
For a similar charge against anatomical investigations at a much earlier period, see Littré, Médecine et Médecins, chapter on anatomy.
113
The original painting of Vesalius at work in his cell, by Hamann, is now at Cornell University.
114
For a curious example of weapons drawn from Galen and used against Vesalius, see Lewes, Life of Goethe, p. 343, note. For proofs that I have not over-estimated Vesalius, see Portal, ubi supra. Portal speaks of him as "le génie le plus droit qu'eut l'Europe;" and again, "Vesale me paraît un des plus grands hommes qui ait existé."
115
See Sprengel, Histoire de la Médecine, vol. vi., pp. 39-80. For the opposition of the Paris Faculty of Theology to inoculation, see the Journal de Barbier, vol. vi., p. 294. For bitter denunciations of inoculation by the English clergy, and for the noble stand against them by Maddox, see Baron, Life of Jenner, vol. i., pp. 231, 232, and vol. ii., pp. 39, 40. For the strenuous opposition of the same clergy, see Weld, History of the Royal Society, vol. i., p. 464, note. Also, for the comical side of this matter, see Nichols's Literary Illustrations, vol. v., p. 800.
116
For the opposition of conscientious men in England to vaccination, see Duns, Life of Sir James Y. Simpson, Bart., London, 1873, pp. 248, 249; also, Baron, Life of Jenner, ubi supra, and vol. ii., p. 43; also, Works of Sir J. Y. Simpson, vol. ii.
117
See Duns, Life of Sir J. Y. Simpson, pp. 215-222.
118
Ibid., pp. 256-259.
119
Ibid., p. 260; also, Works of Sir J. Y. Simpson, ubi supra.
120
Morley, Life of Palissy the Potter, vol. ii., pp. 315, et seq.
121
Audiat, Vie de Palissy, p. 412. Cantu, Hist. Universelle, vol. xv., p. 492.
122
For ancient beliefs regarding giants, see Leopardi, Saggio sopra gli errori popolari, etc., chapter xv. For accounts of the views of Mazurier and Scheuchzer, see Büchner, Man in Past, Present, and Future, English translation, pp. 235, 236. For Increase Mather's views, see Philosophical Transactions, xxiv., 85. For similar fossils sent from New York to the Royal Society as remains of giants, see Weld, History of the Royal Society, vol. i., p. 421. For Father Torrubia and his Gigantologia Española, see D'Archiac, Introduction à l'Étude de la Paléontologie stratiographique, Paris, 1864, p. 202. For admirable summaries, see Lyell, Principles of Geology, London, 1867; D'Archiac, Géologie et Paléontologie, Paris, 1866; Pictet, Traité de Paléontologie, Paris, 1853; Vezian, Prodrome de la Géologie, Paris, 1863; Haeckel, History of Creation, New York, 1876, chapter iii.
123
See Voltaire, Dissertation sur les Changements arrivés dans notre Globe; also, Voltaire, Les Singularités de la Nature, chapter xii., near close of vol. v. of the Didot edition of 1843; also, Jevons, Principles of Science, vol. ii., p. 328.
124
For a candid summary of the proofs from geology, astronomy, and zoölogy, that the Noachian Deluge was not universally or widely extended, see McClintock and Strong, Cyclopædia of Biblical Theology and Ecclesiastical Literature, article Deluge. For general history, see Lyell, D'Archiac, and Vezian. For special cases showing bitterness of the conflict, see the Rev. Mr. Davis's Life of Rev. Dr. Pye Smith, passim.
125
For comparison between conduct of Italian and English ecclesiastics, as regards geology, see Lyell, Principles of Geology, tenth English ed., vol i., p. 33. For a philosophical statement of reasons why the struggle was more bitter, and the attempt at deceptive compromises more absurd in England than elsewhere, see Maury, L'Ancienne Académie des Sciences, second edition, p. 152.
126
For these citations, see Lyell, Principles of Geology, introduction.
127
See Pye Smith, D. D., Geology and Scripture, pp. 156, 157, 168, 169.
128
Wiseman, Twelve Lectures on the Connection between Science and Revealed Religion, first American edition, New York, 1837.
129
See Silliman's Journal, vol. xxx., p. 114.
130
Prof. Goldwin Smith informs me that the papers of Sir Robert Peel, yet unpublished, contain very curious specimens of these epistles.
131
See Personal Recollections of Mary Somerville, Boston, 1874, pp. 139 and 375. Compare with any statement of his religious views that Dean Cockburn was able to make, the following from Mrs. Somerville: "Nothing has afforded me so convincing a proof of the Deity as these purely mental conceptions of numerical and mathematical science which have been, by slow degrees, vouchsafed to man—and are still granted in these latter times, by the differential calculus, now superseded by the higher algebra—all of which must have existed in that sublimely omniscient mind from eternity."—See Personal Recollections, pp. 140, 141.
132
For another great error of the Church in political economy, leading to injury to commerce, see Lindsay, History of Merchant-Shipping, London, 1874, vol. ii.
133
See Murray, History of Usury, Philadelphia, 1866, p. 25; also, Coquelin and Guillaumin, Dictionnaire de l'Économie Politique, articles Intérêt and Usure; also, Lecky, History of Rationalism in Europe, vol. ii., chapter vi.; also, Jeremy Bentham's Defence of Usury, Letter X.; also, Mr. D. S. Dickinson's Speech in the Senate of New York, vol. i. of his collected writings. Of all the summaries, Lecky's is by far the best.
134
The texts cited most frequently were Leviticus xxv. 36, 37; Deuteronomy xxiii. 19; Psalms xv. 5; Ezekiel xviii. 8 and 17; St. Luke vi. 35. See Lecky; also, Dickinson's Speech, as above.
135
See Dictionnaire de l'Économie Politique, articles Intérêt and Usure for these citations. For some doubtful reservations made by St. Augustine, see Murray.
136
See citation of the Latin text in Lecky.
137
For this moral effect, see Montesquieu, Esprit des Lois, lib. xxi., chap. xx.
138
See citation in Lecky.
139
See Coquelin and Guillaumin, article Intérêt.
140
See Craik's History of British Commerce, chapter vi. The statute cited is 3 Henry VII., chapter vi.
141
See Lecky.
142
See citation from the Tischreden, in Guillaumin and Coquelin, article Intérêt.
143
See Craik's History of British Commerce, chapter vi.
144
For citation, as above, see Lecky. For further account, see Œuvres de Bossuet, edition of 1845, vol. xi., p. 330.
145
See citation from Concina in Lecky; also, acquiescence in this interpretation by Mr. Dickinson, in Speech in Senate of New York, above quoted.
146
See Réplique des douze Docteurs, etc., cited by Guillaumin and Coquelin.
147
Burton, History of Scotland, vol. viii., p. 511. See, also, Mause Headrigg's views in Scott's Old Mortality, chapter vii. For the case of a person debarred from the communion for "raising the devil's wind" with a winnowing-machine, see Works of Sir J. Y. Simpson, vol. ii. Those doubting the authority or motives of Simpson may be reminded that he was, to the day of his death, one of the strictest adherents of Scotch orthodoxy.
148
See Journal of Sir I. Brunel, for May 20, 1827, in Life of I. K. Brunel, p. 30.
149
This scene will be recalled, easily, by many leading ethnologists in America, and especially by Mr. E. G. Squier, formerly minister of the United States to Central America.
150
The meteorological battle is hardly fought out yet. Many excellent men seem still to entertain views almost identical with those of over two thousand years ago, depicted in The Clouds of Aristophanes.
151
These texts are Ezekiel v. 5 and xxxviii. 12. The progress of geographical knowledge, evidently, caused them to be softened down somewhat in our King James's version; but the first of them reads, in the Vulgate, "Ista est Hierusalem, in medio gentium posui eam et in circuitu ejus terras;" and the second reads in the Vulgate "in medio terræ," and in the Septuagint ἑπι τὁν ὁμφαλὁν τἡς γἡς. That the literal centre of the earth was meant, see proof in St. Jerome, Commentar. in Ezekiel, lib. ii., and for general proof, see Leopardi, "Saggio sopra gli errori popolari degli antichi," pp. 207, 208. For an idea of orthodox geography in the middle ages, see Wright's Essay on Archæology, vol. ii., chapter "On the Map of the World in Hereford Cathedral." For an example of the depth to which this idea of Jerusalem as the centre had entered into the thinking of the great poet of the middle ages, see Dante, Inferno, Canto xxxiv.:
"E se' or sotto l'emisperio giunto,Ch' è opposito a quel, che la gran seccaCoverchia, e sotto 'l cui colmo consuntoFu l'uom che nacque e visse senza pecca."152
See Michaelis, Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, 1874, vol. ii., p. 3. The writer of the present article himself witnessed the reluctance of a very conscientious man to answer the questions of a census marshal, Mr. Lewis Hawley, of Syracuse, N. Y., and this reluctance was based upon the reasons assigned in II. Samuel chapter xxiv. 1, and I. Chronicles, chapter xxi. 1, for the numbering of the children of Israel.
153
See De Morgan, Paradoxes, pp. 214-220.
154
For Dupanloup, Lettre à un Cardinal, see the Revue de Thérapeutique, 1868, p. 221.
155
For general account of the Vulpian and See matter, see Revue des Deux Mondes, 31 Mai, 1868. Chronique de la Quinzaine, pp. 763-765. As to the result on popular thought, may be noted the following comment on the affair by the Revue, which is as free as possible from anything like rabid anti-ecclesiastical ideas: "Elle a été vraiment curieuse, instructive, assez triste et même un peu amusante." For Wurtz's statement, see Revue de Thérapeutique for 1868, p. 303.
156
De Morgan, Paradoxes, pp. 421-428; also, Daubeny's Essays.
157
See the Berlin newspapers for the summer of 1868, especially Kladderadatsch.
158
In the Church Journal, New York, May 28, 1874, a reviewer, praising Rev. Dr. Hodge's book against Darwinism, says: "Darwinism—whether Darwin knows it or not; whether the clergy, who are half prepared to accept it in blind fright as 'science,' know it or not—is a denial of every article of the Christian faith. It is supreme folly to talk as some do about accommodating Christianity to Darwinism. Either those who so talk do not understand Christianity, or they do not understand Darwinism. If we have all, men and monkeys, women and baboons, oysters and eagles, all 'developed' from an original monad and germ, then St. Paul's grand deliverance—'All flesh is not the same flesh. There is one kind of flesh of men, another of beasts, another of fishes, and another of birds. There are bodies celestial and bodies terrestrial'—may be still very grand in our funeral-service, but very untrue to fact." This is the same dangerous line of argument which Caccini indulged in in Galileo's time. Dangerous, for suppose "Darwinism" be proved true! For a soothing potion by a skillful hand, see Whewell on the consistency of evolution doctrines with teleological ideas; also, Rev. Samuel Houghton, F. R. S., Principles of Animal Mechanics, London, 1873, preface, and page 156, for some interesting ideas on teleological evolution.
159
For some excellent remarks on the futility of such attempts and outcries, see the Rev. Dr. Deems, in Popular Science Monthly for February, 1876. To all who are inclined to draw scientific conclusions from Biblical texts, may be commended the advice of a good old German divine of the Reformation period: "Seeking the milk of the Word, do not press the teats of Holy Writ too hard."
160
In an eloquent sermon, preached in March, 1874, Bishop Cummins said, in substance: "The Church has no fear of Science; the persecution of Galileo was entirely unwarrantable; but Christians should resist to the last Darwinism; for that is evidently contrary to Scripture." The bishop forgets that Galileo's doctrine seemed to such colossal minds as Bellarmin, and Luther, and Bossuet, "evidently contrary to Scripture." Far more logical, modest, sagacious, and full of faith, is the attitude taken by his former associate, Dr. John Cotton Smith: "For geology, physiology, and historical criticism have threatened or destroyed only particular forms of religious opinion, while they have set the spirit of religion free to keep pace with the larger generalizations of modern knowledge."—Picton, The Mystery of Matter, London, 1873, p. 72.