The Elements of Agriculture

Name some of the benefits of rolling?

Rolling the soil with a large roller, arranged to be drawn by a team, is in many instances a good accessory to cultivation. By its means, the following results are obtained:—

1. The soil at the surface is pulverized without the compacting of the lower parts, the area of contact being large.

2. The stones on the land are pressed down so as to be out of the way of the scythe in mowing.

3. The soil is compacted around seeds after sowing in such a manner as to exclude light and to touch them in every part, both of which are essential to their germination and to the healthfulness of the plants.

Under what circumstances should the roller be used?

4. The soil is so compacted at the surface, that it is less frequented by grubs, etc., than when it is more loose.

5. When the soil is smoothed in this manner, there is less surface exposed for the evaporation of water with its cooling effect.

6. Light sandy lands, by being rolled in the fall, are rendered more compact, and the loosening effects of frequent freezing and thawing are avoided.

Although productive of these various effects, rolling should be adopted only with much care, and should never be applied to very heavy lands, except in dry weather when lumpy after plowing, as its tendency in such cases would be to render them still more difficult of cultivation. Soils in which air does not circulate freely, are not improved by rolling, as it presses the surface-particles still more closely together, and prevents the free admission of the atmosphere.

If well under-drained, a large majority of soils would doubtless be benefited by a judicious use of the roller.35

What is mulching?

What are some of its benefits?

Mulching (called Gurneyism in England) consists in covering the soil with salt hay, litter, seaweed, leaves, spent tanbark, chips, or other refuse matter.

Every farmer must have noticed that, if a board or rail, or an old brush-heap be removed in spring from soil where grass is growing, the grass afterwards grows in those places much larger and better than in other parts of the field.

This improvement arises from various causes.

1. The evaporation of water from the soil is prevented during drought by the shade afforded by the mulch; and it is therefore kept in better condition, as to moisture and temperature, than when evaporation goes on more freely. This condition is well calculated to advance the chemical changes necessary to prepare the matters—both organic and mineral—in the soil for the use of plants.

2. By preventing evaporation, we partially protect the soil from losing ammonia resultant from decaying organic matter.

3. A heavy mulch breaks the force of rains, and prevents them from compacting the soil, as would be the result, were no such precaution taken.

4. Mulching protects the surface-soil from freezing as readily as when exposed, and thus keeps it longer open for the admission of air and moisture. When unprotected, the soil early becomes frozen; and all water falling, instead of entering as it should do, passes off on the surface.

Why does mulching take the place of artificial watering?

Why is the late sowing of oats beneficial?

From what arises the chief benefit of top dressing the soil with manure in autumn?

5. The throwing out of winter grain is often prevented, because this is due to the freezing of the surface-soil.

6. Mulching prevents the growth of some weeds, because it removes from them the fostering heat of the sun.

Many of the best nursery-men keep the soil about the roots of young trees mulched continually. One of the chief arguments for this treatment is, that it prevents the removal of the moisture from the soil and the consequent loss of heat. Also that it keeps up a full supply of water for the uses of the roots, because it keeps the soil cool, and causes a deposit of dew.

7. It also prevents the "baking" of the soil, or the formation of a crust.

It is to be recommended in nearly all cases to sow oats very thinly over land intended for winter fallow after the removal of crops, as they will grow a little before being killed by the frost, when they will fall down, thus affording a very beneficial mulch to the soil.

When farmers spread manure on their fields in the fall to be plowed under in the spring, they benefit the land by the mulching more than by the addition of fertilizing matter, because they give it the protecting influence of the straw, etc., while they lose much of the ammonia of their manure by evaporation. The same mulching might be more cheaply done with leaves, or other refuse matter, and the ammonia of the manure made available by composting with absorbents.

Why is snow particularly beneficial?

It is an old and true saying that "snow is the poor man's manure." The reason why it is so beneficial is, chiefly, that it acts as a most excellent mulch. It contains no more ammonia than rain-water does; and, were it not for the fact that it protects the soil against loss of heat, and produces other benefits of mulching, it would have no more advantageous effect. The severity of winters at the North is partially compensated by the long duration of snow.

It is a well known fact that when there is but little snow in cold countries, wheat is very liable to be winter killed. The same protection is afforded by artificial mulching.

This treatment is peculiarly applicable to the cultivation of flowers, both in pots and in beds out of doors. It is almost indispensable to the profitable production of strawberries, and many other garden crops, such as asparagus, rhubarb, etc. Many say that the best treatment for trees is to put stones about their roots. This is simply mulching them, and might be done more cheaply by the use of leaves, copying the action of nature in forests;36 for, unless these stones be removed in spring, they will sink and compact the soil in part during open weather.

What are some of the uses of weeds? Their disadvantages?

If a farmer were asked—what is the use of weeds? he might make out quite a list of their benefits, among which might be some of the following:—

1. They shade tender plants, and in a measure serve as a mulch to the ground.

2. Some weeds, by their offensive odor, drive away many insects.

3. They may serve as a green crop to be plowed into the soil, and increase its organic matter.

4. They make us stir the soil, and thus increase its fertility.

Still, while thinking out these excuses for weeds, he would see other and more urgent reasons why they should not be allowed to grow.

1. They occupy the soil to the disadvantage of crops.

2. They exclude light and heat from cultivated plants, and thus interfere with their growth.

3. They take up mineral and other matters from the soil, and hold them during the growing season, thus depriving crops of their use.

It is not necessary to argue the injury done by weeds. Every farmer is well convinced that they should be destroyed, and the best means of accomplishing this are of the greatest importance.

How may we protect ourselves against their increase?

Why is it especially important for this purpose to maintain the balance of the soil?

In the first place, we should protect ourselves against their increase. This may be done:—

By decomposing all manures in compost, whereby the seeds contained will be killed by the heat of fermentation; or, if one bushel of salt be mixed through each cord of compost (as before recommended), it will kill seeds as well as grubs,—

By hoeing, or, otherwise, destroying growing weeds before they mature their seeds, and

By keeping the soil in the best chemical condition.

This last point is one of much importance. It is well known that soils deficient in potash, will naturally produce one kind of plants, while soils deficient in phosphoric acid will produce plants of another species, etc. Many soils produce certain weeds which would not grow on them if they were made chemically perfect, as indicated by analysis. It is also believed that those weeds, which naturally grow on the most fertile soils, are the ones most easily destroyed. There are exceptions (of which the Thistle is one), but this is given as a general rule.

How much salt may be used with advantage?

Why is the scuffle-hoe superior to the common hoe?

By careful attention to the foregoing points, weeds may be kept from increasing while those already in the soil may be eradicated in various ways, chiefly by mechanical means, such as hoeing, plowing, etc.37

Prof. Mapes says that six bushels of salt annually sown broadcast over each acre of land, will destroy very many weeds as well as grubs and worms.

The common hoe is a very imperfect tool for the purpose of removing weeds, as it prepares a better soil for, and replants in a position to grow, nearly as many weeds as it destroys.

The scuffle-hoe (or push-hoe) is much more effective, as, when worked by a man walking backwards, and retiring as he works, it leaves nearly all of the weeds on the surface of the soil to be killed by the sun. When used in this way, the earth is not trodden on after being hoed—as is the case when the common hoe is employed. This treading, besides compacting the soil, covers the roots of many weeds, and causes them to grow again.

How may much labor be saved in removing weeds?

What is the Langdon horse-hoe?

Describe the universal cultivator?

Much of the labor of weeding usually performed by men, might be more cheaply done by horses. There are various implements for this purpose, some of which are coming, in many parts of the country, into very general use.

One of the best of these is the Langdon Horse Hoe, which is a shovel-shaped plow, to be run one or two inches deep. It has a wing on each side to prevent the earth from falling on to the plants in the rows. At the rear, or upper edge, is a kind of rake or comb, which allows the earth to pass through, while the weeds pass over the comb and fall on the surface of the soil, to be killed by the heat of the sun. It is a simple and cheap tool, and will perform the work of twenty men with hoes. The hand hoe will be necessary only in the rows.

The cultivator, which was described in the preceding chapter, and of which there are various patterns in use, is excellent for weeding, and for loosening the soil between the rows of corn, etc. The one called the universal cultivator, having its side bars made of iron, curved so that at whatever distance it is placed the teeth will point straight forward, is a much better tool than those of the older patterns, which had the teeth so arranged that when set for wide rows, they pointed towards the clevis. It is difficult to keep such a cultivator in its place, while the "universal" is as difficult to move out of a straight line.

What is the improved horse-hoe?

The improved horse-hoe is a combination of the "Langdon" horse hoe and the cultivator, and is the best implement, for many purposes, that has yet been made.38

Fig. 9

Until within a comparatively short period, but little attention has been paid to the production of machines for harvesting the various crops.

During the past few years, however, many valuable inventions have appeared. Among these we notice Ketchum's mower, Hussey's mower and reaper, and Wagener's grain and grass seed harvester. The latter machine gathers only the grain and seeds of the crop, leaving the straw to be plowed under the soil, thus maintaining its supply of soluble silicates, and increasing its amount of organic matter. After taking the seed heads from the standing straw and grasses, it thrashes them, blows out the chaff, separates the different kinds of seeds, and discharges them into bags ready for market. It consists of a car containing the machinery; to this may be attached any required number of horses. The inventor affirms that it has harvested the grain of two acres in one hour, performing the work with accuracy.39

There is much truth in the following proverbs:

"A garden that is well kept, is kept easily."

"You must conquer weeds, or weeds will conquer you."

What are the two great rules in mechanical cultivation?

It is almost impossible to give a recapitulation of the matters treated in this section, as it is, itself, but an outline of subjects which might occupy our whole book. The scholar and the farmer should understand every principle which it contains, as well as they understand the multiplication table; and their application will be found, in every instance, to produce the best results.

The two great rules of mechanical cultivation are—

Thorough under-draining.

Deep and frequent disturbance of the soil.

CHAPTER I

CHAPTER II

TABLES OF ANALYSISANALYSES OF THE ASHES OF CROPS

No. I.

No. II

No. III

No. IV

No. V

No. VI

Amount of Inorganic Matter removed from the soil by ten bushels of grains, etc., and by the straw, etc., required in their production—estimated in pounds:

No. VII

No. VIII

No. IX

No. X

No. XI

No. XII

Composition of Ashes, leached and unleached, showing their manurial value:

No. XIII

No. XIV

TOBACCO.

Analysis of the ash of the Plant [Will & Fresedius]—

Analysis of the ash of the Root [Berthier]—

The Soluble parts consist of nearly—

No. XVComposition of some of the more common Compounds of Acids and Alkalies

[AR] Contain a large amount of Water.

No. XVI

Proximate Analyses of Crops, showing the amount of the different Organic Compounds contained in Grain, Roots, Hay, etc.—estimated in pounds:

[AS] Pectic Acid.

No. XVII

Amount of Ash left after burning 1000 lbs. of various plants, ordinarily dry—

No. XVIII

MANURES.

HORSE MANURE.

Solid Dung—

Composition of the Ash—

No. XIX

NIGHT SOIL.

Solid (Ash)—

Urine

[AT] Supply Ammonia.

No. XX

COW MANURE.

Solid (Ash)—

No. XXI

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF THE URINE OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS.

No. XXII

GUANO.

For the analysis of fertile and barren soils, see page 72