Writing: B2+

3

Essay content and language

Aims

  explain the time frame, situation and certainty

  define key terms and concepts

  indicate the importance of the topic and organization of the essay

  use organizational patterns and visuals

  understand the language of conclusions

Quiz

Self-evaluation

For each statement below, circle the word which is true for you.

Content and language

In Chapter 2, we discussed how your essay question can be analysed to produce an outline that shows in which section of your essay you will discuss each part. Here we look at the content and language of introductions, the main body and conclusions.

The beginning of the essay

The essay has to introduce the topic, so must start with a relatively general comment. The trick is not to over-generalize, otherwise the comment becomes meaningless. For example, the following first sentences of an essay are too vague or general.

The following examples get it just right: they are not too general, nor too specific.

You will have noted from the comments about examples 1–3 that it is not a good idea to memorize words or phrases (‘nowadays’, ‘has been debated’) to insert your ideas into. It is better to start from your ideas and then to think about how they are best expressed. To do this, you need to think about the time frame, the situation and the certainty.

Although you are generalizing, don’t be vague about the situation and when it happened.

If we analyse what the verbs describe in examples 1–5 above (looking at the improved versions in the column on the right for 1–3), we will find the present continuous tense (is becoming, is having, are living) in examples 1, 4 and 5, which describe ongoing processes. In examples 2 and 3 the present perfect is used, to link a past situation with the present (have become, have led). There is also an example of the present passive form (is spoken) in example 1. Notice that generalizations are unlikely to be expressed in the past tense, unless they are about historical situations.

For more information on tenses, see Chapter 5.

Notice that generalizations often use plural nouns (people, tuition fees, student numbers), and uncountable nouns, i.e. a noun that has no plural form (globalization). It would be strange to use a singular countable noun (person, student), unless it represents a larger category as in the example ‘A student needs to be able to raise thousands of pounds a year’, where the word ‘student’ does not relate to a particular student, but to ‘any student’. The sentence has the same meaning as ‘Students need to be able …’

In the original sentence in example 2, the writer states a truth, without saying what the relevance of it is for the essay. The addition of ‘technology-based activities’ in the improved version tells the reader why surfing the internet and watching TV are mentioned, especially as there is also a contrast with ‘traditional pastimes’. This adds an element of precision, even though the sentence remains general.

Precision is also present in example 4: we know which aspects of globalization the writer is going to discuss. By mentioning the four categories, the writer also indicates the structure of the essay.

You need to indicate very clearly what is fact and what is not.

The claim in (improved) example 1 is that the English language is popular, and the evidence for this is that it is spoken as a first or second language by millions of people and that it is used in electronic communication (which makes it become even more popular).

The writer of example 1 presents a fact and evidence. In example 3, we can read about a cause and its effect. These claims are strong, as evidence is provided.

When less evidence is available, it is better to be cautious and use language that expresses your degree of certainty. This can be done through adverbs (usually, often, undoubtedly, probably, unlikely), adjectives (most, some, certain) and modal verbs (can, may, might).

For more information on cautious language, see Chapters 8 and 9.

Glossary

cautious ADJ If you describe someone’s attitude, language, or reaction as cautious, you mean that it is limited or careful.

Definitions

Definitions can occur in the introduction or the main part of the essay. Key concepts are most likely to be defined in the introduction.

It is normal practice to define your key terms, but it becomes especially important to include definitions if you use the words in a meaning which is different from the usual interpretation, or if you are using one meaning when there are many.

Look at the following ways to define an important concept:

Notice how the passive form is often used (is defined, can be described, is called, is known, is referred to). Typical mistakes that are made with the passive are forgetting the form of ‘to be’ and not using the past participle (e.g. writing define where it should be defined). Remember that passive forms have a form of ‘to be’ followed by the past participle of the verb.

Study the tables above. Then try to do Exercise 1 without looking back at the tables.

Exercise 1

Define the word ‘comprehension’ (= the act or ability to understand) in two ways: once starting the sentence with the word, and once ending the sentence with the word. Use passive forms of the verb each time.

Definitions often use relative clauses after a noun to indicate which person or which thing we are talking about, for example:

Notation is a method of recording music, which is based on naming the notes by letters and also includes ways of distinguishing the value of notes in terms of duration.

The relative pronoun that is used here is ‘which’. Other relative pronouns that are often used after a noun in this way are who, whose (which expresses possession), and that.

Exercise 2

Fill in the missing relative pronouns in the following definitions. Choose from that, which, whose and who.

1 The wings of a bird or insect are the two parts of its body________________it uses for flying.

2 A wing of an organization, especially a political organization, is a group________________is part of it and________________has a particular function or particular beliefs.

3 In a theatre, the wings are the sides of the stage________________are hidden from the audience by curtains or scenery.

4 A choir is an organized group of singers________________usually sing in church services.

5 A long, thin container________________you squeeze in order to force paste out is referred to as a tube.

If you are using a particular definition or interpretation, perhaps from a choice of many, you will need to use longer structures to explain this, and may need to include a justification of your choice. Some examples are:

Using definitions

 For the purposes of this essay, I will be using Kotler’s definition of societal marketing, because of its focus on the organization’s task to meet the need of the clients and to ‘… deliver the desired satisfactions more effectively and efficiently than competitors, in a way that preserves or enhances the consumer’s and the society’s well-being.’

 Although many different definitions of marketing have been suggested over the years, I will be using the one by Kotler (1994), because of.…

 Throughout this essay, I will be using the word ‘cognitive’ to refer to the different types of intellectual behaviour.

 In this essay, the term ‘reliability’ is used to mean …

Indicating the importance of the topic

Superlatives can be useful to indicate that the topic is a relevant one:

The following adjective and noun combinations can also be useful:

Adjective and noun combinations

an important part, a key role/factor, a great/major problem, a central area of, a common problem, an increasing need/concern, heightened awareness, rapid development, a dramatic increase, renewed/unprecedented interest, a serious effect/impact on, increasing concern