The Jesuits, 1534-1921
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Possibly the Portuguese Francis Macedo might be admitted to this list of famous authors. It is true that he left the Society but as he had been a member for twenty-eight years it deserves some credit for the cultivation of his remarkable abilities. Maynard calls him the prodigy of his age. Thus at Venice in 1667 Macedo held a public disputation on nearly every branch of human knowledge, especially the Bible, theology, patrology, history, literature and poetry. In his quaint and extravagant style he called this display the literary roarings of the Lion of St. Mark. It had been prepared in eight days. On account of his success, Venice gave him the freedom of the city and the professorship of moral philosophy at the University of Padua. In his "Myrothecium morale" he tells us that he has pronounced three hundred and fifty panegyrics, sixty Latin harangues, thirty-two funeral orations, and had composed one hundred and twenty-three elegies, one hundred and fifteen epitaphs, two hundred and twelve dedicatory epistles, two thousand and six hundred heroic poems, one hundred and ten odes, four Latin comedies, two tragedies and satires in Spanish, besides a number of treatises on theology such as "The Doctrines of St. Thomas and Scotus," "Positive theology for the refutation of heretics," "The Keys of Peter," "The Pontifical Authority," "Medulla of Ecclesiastical History," and the "Refutation of Jansenism." The Society made him great but failed to teach him humility.
In most theological libraries which are even moderately equipped one sees long lines of books on which the name of Muzzarelli appears. They are of different kinds; ascetical, devotional, educational, philosophical and theological, and many of them have been translated into various languages. He belonged to the old Society, entering it only four years before the suppression. He was then twenty-four years of age. As he was of a noble family of Ferrara, he held a benefice in his native city at the time of his banishment, and a little later, the Duke of Parma made him rector of the College of Nobles. Pius VII called him to Rome and made him theologian of the Penitentiaria, which meant that he was the Pope's theologian. When the Society was re-established in Naples, he asked permission to join his brethren there, but the Pope refused. It was just as well, for Napoleon's troops soon closed the establishment. When Pius VII was carried off a prisoner in 1809, Muzzarelli was also deported. He never returned to Rome, but died in Paris one year before the Restoration of the Society. He was not however forgotten in his native city, which regarded him as one of its glories. Among his works were several of an ascetic character such as "The Sacred Heart," "The Month of Mary," and also a "Life of St. Francis Hieronymo."
There were also a few modern Jesuits who were conspicuous in moral theology. First, in point of time was Jean-Pierre Gury, who was born in Mailleroncourt on January 23, 1801. He taught theology for thirty-five years at Annecy and at the Roman College. He died on April 18, 1866. His work was adopted as a text-book in a number of seminaries, because of its brevity, honesty and solidity. It is true that his brevity impaired his accuracy at times, as well as the scientific presentation of questions, but his successors such as Seitz, Cercia, Melandri and Ballerini filled up the gaps by the help of the decisions of the Congregations and the more recent pronouncements of the Holy See. Besides his "Moral Theology" he also published his "Casus conscientiæ." That made him the typical "Jesuit Casuist," and drew on him all the traditional hatred of Protestant polemicists, especially in Germany. His work did much to extirpate what was left of Jansenism in Europe.
Antonio Ballerini held the chair of moral theology in the Roman College from 1856 until his death in 1881. In the cautious words of Hurter he was "almost the prince of moralists of our times." Besides his "Principi della scuola Rosminiana" he wrote his remarkable "Sylloge monumentorum ad mysterium Immaculatæ Conceptionis illustrandum," and in 1863 issued his "De morali systemate S. Alphonsi M. de Ligorio." In 1866 appeared his "Compendium theologiæ moralis." The style was somewhat acrid, and sharp, especially in the controversy it provoked with the out-and-out defenders of St. Alphonsus. His annotations were a mine of erudition and revealed at the same time a very unusual intellectual sagacity and correctness of judgment. His book, on the whole, exercised a great influence in promoting solid theological study; and its denunciation of the frivolous reasons on which many opinions were based and the unreliableness of many quotations decided the tone of subsequent works by other authors. Following Ballerini were other Jesuits such as Lehmkuhl, Sabbetti, Noldin, Genicot and Palmieri, who won fame as moralists.
Palmieri was not only a theologian, a moralist and a philosopher, but an exegete. He taught Scripture and the Oriental languages in Maastricht for seven years, and in 1886, published a Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians and another on the historicity of the Book of Judith. He was among the first to sound the alarm about Loisy's heterodoxy and he wrote several books against the Modernistic errors. His reputation rests chiefly on his dogmatic theology; every two years, from 1902, he issued treatises that immediately attracted attention for their brilliant originality and exhaustive learning. He died in Rome on May 29, 1909. "This superlatively sagacious man," says Hurter, "blended Gury and the super-abundant commentaries of Ballerini into one continuous text, injecting, of course, his own personal views into his seven great volumes, with the result that it is a positive pleasure to read him." The wonderful theological acumen manifested in this, as in his other works apparently restored him to favor with Leo XIII, who disliked some of his philosophical speculations. Hence, when Father Steinhüber was made cardinal, Palmieri was appointed to succeed him as theologian of the Penitentiaria.
Besides all this, Palmieri gave a delightful revelation of his affectionate character as a devoted son, when he wrote, at the request of his mother, a Commentary of Dante. Ojetti says that "he brought all the profundity of his philosophy and theology to his task and produced a work which astonished those who were able to appreciate the depth of the thought and the scientific erudition employed in the exposition of each individual canto."
The great Perrone was born in Chieri in 1794 and entered the Society on December 14, 1815, one of the first novices after the Re-establishment. He began his career as professor of dogma at Orvieto, and from thence was transferred to Rome, where he remained until the outbreak of the Revolution in 1848. After a three years' stay in England he resumed his place at the Roman College. He was consultor of various congregations, was conspicuous as the antagonist of Hermes, and also in the discussion that ended in the dogmatic definition of the Immaculate Conception. His "Prælectiones theologiæ" in nine volumes reached its thirty-fourth edition, while its "Compendium" saw fifty-seven.
Carlo Passaglia is another great theological luminary. He entered the Society in 1827, and when scarcely thirty years old was teaching at the Sapienza and was prefect of studies at the Collegium Germanicum. The Gregorian University then claimed him, and, in 1850, he took a leading part in preparing the definition of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception on which he wrote three large volumes. Other great works are to his credit, but his historico-linguistic method met with criticism. It was said he substituted grammar for dogma. Passaglia left the Society, however, in 1859. Pius IX gave him a chair in the Sapienza; there he came in contact with an agent of Cavour and under his influence wrote his book "Pro causa italica". It was placed on the "Index," and Passaglia fled to Turin, where he taught moral philosophy until his death and edited a weekly called "Il Medicatore," which welcomed articles from discontented priests. He also published a daily paper called "La Pace," as well as "Il Gerdil," a theological review. He was suspended from his priestly functions, dressed as a layman, and was temerarious enough to criticise the Syllabus. The Bishop of Mondovi tried to reconcile him with the Church, but he did not retract until a few months before his death. Hurter calls him "an illustrious professor of dogma who was carried away by politics, left the Society, assailed the Temporal Power, and by his sad defection cast a stain on his former glory. His quotations from the Fathers are too diffuse, and although his work on the Immaculate Conception displays immense erudition it crushes the reader by its bulk."
Carlo Maria Curci also brought grief to his associates in those days. He had acquired great fame for his defense of the rights of the Pope against the Liberal politicians of the Peninsula, but unfortunately, soon after, became a Liberal himself and left the Society. He returned again, however, shortly before his death which occurred on June 19, 1891. He was one of the first contributors to the "Civiltà" and was, besides, a remarkable orator. His "Nature and Grace," "Christian Marriage," "Lessons from the two books of the Machabees and the Four Gospels," and "Joseph in Egypt" were the most notable of his writings.
Josef Wilhelm Karl Kleutgen was a Westphalian. He entered the Society on April 28, 1834, at Brieg; to avoid difficulties with the German Government he became a naturalized Swiss, and for some time went by the name of Peters. In 1843 he was professor of sacred eloquence in the Collegium Germanicum, and subsequently was named substitute to the Secretary of Father General, consultor of the Congregation of the Index, and collaborator in the preparation of the Constitution "De fide catholica" of the Vatican Council. He wrote the first draft of Pope Leo's Encyclical "Æterni Patris" on the revival of Scholastic theology and philosophy. His knowledge of the writings of the Angelic Doctor was so great that he was called Thomas redivivus. His first work "Theologie der Vorzeit" and his "Philosophie der Vorzeit" against Hermes, Hirscher, and Günther were declared to be epoch-making. The writing of these books coincided with a remarkable event in his life, namely suspension from his priestly office for his imprudence in allowing a community of nuns under his direction to honor as a saint one of their deceased members. He went into seclusion consequently but at the opening of the Vatican Council he was recalled by Pius IX to take part in it. All his works excel in solidity of doctrine, accuracy and brilliancy of exposition and nobility of style.
Johann Franzelin was a Tyrolese. He entered the Society on 27 July, 1834, but passed most of his life outside of his country. He studied theology in Rome, and became such an adept in Greek and Hebrew that he occupied the chair when the professor was ill. He had to leave the city in the troublous times of 1848, but on his return he gave public lectures in the Roman College on Oriental languages. In 1857 he began his career as professor of dogma and his immense erudition caused him to be called for in many of the Roman congregations. In 1876 Pius IX created him cardinal. His theological works are known throughout the Church for their solidity, erudition and scrupulous accuracy. His dignity made no change in his simple and laborious life. He continued until the end of his days to wear poor garments, occupied two small rooms in the Novitiate of Sant' Andrea, rose at four every morning and spent the time until seven in devotional exercises. He kept up his penitential practises till death came on 11 December, 1886.
CHAPTER XXIX
THE SOVEREIGN PONTIFFS AND THE SOCIETY
Devotion, Trust and Affection of each Pope of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries manifested in their Official and Personal Relations with the Society.
The restored Society, like the old, has been the recipient of many favors from the Sovereign Pontiffs. Pius VI would have immediately undone the work of Clement XIV, had it been at all possible; and Pius VII faced the wrath of all the kings and statesmen of Europe by issuing the Bull that put back the Society in the place it had previously occupied in the Church.
The election of Leo XII, who succeeded Pius VII on September 28, 1823, had, at first, thrown consternation among the members of the Order, because of his previous attitude as Cardinal della Genga. He had been associated with its enemies and had uttered very harsh words about the Society, but it soon became evident that it was all due to the impression which the plotters had given him that they were fighting against the influence of Paccanarism in certain members of the congregation. When he became Pope, he understood better the facts of the case and became one of the warmest friends the Society ever had.
On May 7, 1824, he recalled the Fathers to the Roman College and gave them a yearly revenue of 12,000 scudi, besides restoring to them the Church of St. Ignatius, the Caravita Oratory, the museum, the library, the observatory, etc. He entrusted to them the direction of the College of Nobles; assigned to them the Villa of Tivoli; set apart new buildings for the Collegium Germanicum, and on July 4, 1826, he established them in the College of Spoleto, which he had founded for the teaching of humanities, philosophy, civil and canon law, theology and holy Scripture; for all of which he had provided ample revenues.
In the same year he issued the celebrated Bull "Plura inter," restoring the ancient privileges of the Society and adding new ones. This list of spiritual favors fills seven complete columns. "Everyone is aware," he said in the Bull, "how many and how great were the services performed by this Society, which was the fruitful mother of men who were conspicuous for their piety and learning. From it we expect still more in the future, seeing that it is extending its branches so widely even before it has taken new root. For not only in Rome but in Transalpine countries and in the remotest regions of the world, it is affectionately received, because it leaves nothing undone to train youth in piety and the liberal arts, in order to make them the future ornaments of their respective countries."
On July 27, he increased the revenues of the College of Beneventum, and on October 11, of the same year, he told the people of Faenza that he could not, just then, give them a Jesuit College because of the lack of funds, but that he would meet their wishes as soon as possible. The very month before his death, he sent encouraging words to the Fathers in England, who were harassed by all sorts of calumnious accusations, and told the Bishop of Thespia that "the English scholastics could be ordained sub titulo paupertatis, and had a right to the same privileges as other religious orders in England." Finally, he would have appointed Father Kohlmann Bishop of New York and Father Kenny to the See of Dromore, had not the General persuaded him not to do so. The same thing occurred in the case of Father Pallavicini who was named for the See of Reggio in Calabria. Pope Leo XII died on February 10, 1829, a few days after the demise of Father Fortis, who was his affectionate and intimate friend.
The name of his successor, Pius VIII, was Francis Xavier Castiglione – a good omen for the brethren of the great Apostle. Indeed, brief though his pontificate was, he always made it clear that the Society was very dear to him. "I have always let it be known," he said to the Fathers who had presented themselves to greet him at his accession, "and I shall avail myself of every occasion to declare that I love the Society of Jesus. From my earliest childhood that feeling was deep in my heart, and I have always profoundly venerated St. Ignatius and St. Francis Xavier. I bear, all unworthy as I am, the name of Xavier. I have been taught by the most distinguished Jesuits, and I know how much good they have done for the Church, so that as the Church cannot be separated from the Pope, he cannot be separated from the Society. These are sad days and there never was witnessed greater audacity and hate. Impiety has never employed greater cunning against the truth. Perhaps very soon other grievous wounds will be inflicted on the Church; but together we shall fight the enemies of God. Return to your provinces, therefore, and arouse in your brethren the same ardor that is in your hearts. Preach and teach obedience and integrity of life in your schools, in your pulpits, by voice and pen, and with all your soul. May God second your efforts. Meantime keep always unshaken in the assurance that I shall always be, before all, your most tender and devoted Father."
On December 2, 1829, accompanied by Cardinals Somaglia and Odescalchi he went to the Gesù, and after praying at the altar of St. Francis Xavier, published the beatification of Alphonsus Liguori, the founder of the Redemptorist Order. He lavished favors on the Germanico-Hungarico and the College of Nobles; and when Charles Augustus von Reisach, a student of the Collegium Germanicum who was very young at the time, was named rector of the Propaganda, the Pope said to those who referred to it: "Never mind; he is young but he has studied in the best of schools and every one praises him for the maturity of his character, his irreproachable life and his fitness for the office."
When this devoted friend of the Society died, Cardinal Cappellari, the learned Camaldolese monk, ascended the pontifical throne and took the name Gregory XVI. Fifteen days afterwards all Italy was in the throes of Revolution. The Carbonari were in control, and as usual the Society felt the first blow. On February 17th, at the same hour, the colleges of Spoleto, Fano, Modena, Reggio, Forlì and Ferrara were attacked and the masters and pupils thrown out in the street. A decree of banishment was issued, but the people arose in their wrath, suppressed the insurrection and the Fathers were re-instated.
When peace was restored, the Pope gave a notable illustration of his esteem for the Society. He summoned all the religious of the various orders in Rome to the Gesù to make the Spiritual Exercises. A short time afterwards, at the instance of the Propaganda, he entrusted to it the administration of several colleges and formulated the concessions in the most eulogistic of terms, declaring among other things that a long and happy experience from the very beginning of the Institute until the present time, and in divers parts of the world, had shown the Holy See the incontestable aptitude of the Fathers for directing both clerical and secular schools. The same conviction, he said later, also prompted him to give them the Illyrian College.
The cholera which was sweeping over Europe finally reached Rome. The Pope had already established ambulances and hospitals in various parts of the city, and his appeal to the religious sentiments of the people prevented the frightful orgies which had disgraced London, Madrid and Paris when similarly afflicted. Cardinal Odescalchi, soon to be a Jesuit, was especially conspicuous in tranquillizing the populace, and a solemn ceremony in which the entire city participated is especially worthy of note, since it was intended by the Sovereign Pontiff to be an official announcement that while the pestilence lasted, the Jesuit Fathers were to be the principal channel of the Papal charities. The miraculous picture of the Blessed Virgin was carried in procession from St. Mary Major's to the Gesù and, in spite of the stifling heat, the Pope himself, surrounded by his cardinals, the clergy and the principal civil officials, accompanied the picture through the kneeling multitudes in the streets, and placed it on the altar in the Jesuit church, which thus became the prayer centre for the city while the pestilence lasted.
On August 23, 1837, it struck the city at the same moment in several places. Two princesses were its first victims, but the Pope in person went wherever the harvest of death was greatest, and his example inspired every one to emulate his devotion. Naturally members of the Society did their duty in those terrible days when 9,372 people were attacked by the disease and more than 5,000 perished. By the month of October the plague had ceased.
Cardinal Odescalchi, who had won the affection of the people of Rome by his heroic devotion to them at this crisis, astounded them in the following year by the renunciation of the exalted dignities which he enjoyed in the Church and in the State, for he was a prince – in order to assume the humble garb and subject himself to the obedience of the Society of Jesus. The Pope and the cardinals endeavored to dissuade him from taking the step, pleading the interests of the Church, but he persisted, and on the day of his admission, December 8, 1838, he wrote to Father Roothaan to say that he could not describe the happiness that he felt, and he requested the General to deal with him as he would with the humblest of his subjects. He was then fifty-two years old. He died at Modena, on August 17, 1841, and had thus been able as one of its sons to celebrate the third centenary of the Society, which occurred in 1840. There was little if any public declaration, however, of this anniversary, for Father Roothaan had sent a reminder to all the provinces that the dangers of the time made it advisable to keep all manifestations of happiness and of gratitude to God within the limits of the domestic circle.
In 1836 an imperial edict in answer to a popular demand permitted the Jesuits to establish schools anywhere in the limits of the Austrian empire and to follow their own methods of teaching independently of university control. The emperor and empress honored by their presence the first college opened in Verona. Other cities of Italy invited the Fathers to open schools, and Metternich, who is sometimes cited as their enemy, allowed them to install themselves at Venice, where a remnant of antagonism had remained, ever since the time of Paolo Sarpi; but by St. Ignatius Day in 1844 that had all vanished and the patriarch, the doge, the nobility, the clergy and the people united in giving the Fathers a cordial welcome.
In the Island of Malta, which had become a British possession, the inhabitants sent a letter of thanks to Lord Stanley, the secretary of State, for having granted them a college of the Society. The letter had 4,000 signatures. The Two Sicilies welcomed the Society in 1804 and restored to it the Professed house, along with the Collegium Maximum and the old churches; other establishments were begun elsewhere in the kingdom. After the Jesuits had been expelled by the Carbonari in 1820 the usual reaction occurred and they were soon back at their posts. The cholera of 1837 gave them a new hold on the affection of the people, and for the moment their position in the kingdom appeared to be absolutely secure.
During the fifteen years of his pontificate, Gregory XVI published no less than fifteen rescripts in favor of the Society. On March 30, 1843, he empowered Georgetown College in Washington to confer philosophical and theological degrees. In the following year he restored the Illyrian College, which Gregory XIII had established at Loreto, and gave it to the Society together with the Villa Leonaria. At the request of Cardinal Franzoni, the prefect of the Propaganda, he turned over the Urban College to the Society, and in the rescript announcing the transfer he said: "Whereas the Congregation of the Propaganda was convinced that the instruction of the young clerics who are to be sent to foreign parts to spread the light of the Gospel and to cultivate the vineyard of the Lord could not be better trained for such a task than by those religious who make it the special work of their Institute to form youth in piety, literature and science, and who always strive intensely in whatever they undertake to promote the greater glory of God; and whereas, from the very establishment of the Society of Jesus, the Church has had daily experience of the aptitude of the Fathers of the Society in the education of youth both in secular and clerical pursuits in all parts of the world; and whereas the testimony which even the enemies of the Holy See and of the Church are compelled by the evidence of things to pay to the Society of Jesus for the excellent education which the youth of their colleges receive, we do therefore assent most willingly to the petition of the lord cardinal of the Congregation of the Propaganda."