History of Embalming

A more useful application of the process has also been made by the police of Paris, in preserving bodies for many weeks in the morgue, where suspicions of murder exacted an unusual retention of the body.

The specimens of pathological anatomy, preserved in the same liquid of injection, were not exempt from the usual inconvenience attached to similar preparations in a solution of muriate of soda and other salts, being equally liable to incrustations, requiring a change or renewal of the solution.

In the preservation of birds by this process it was found sufficient to inject the body by the trachea, subsequently suspending the animal by the feet in order to drain it of the superabundant fluid, and then giving it a fixed position by means of wires; such preparations retain their flexibility and natural appearance for some weeks, or until desiccation commences.

The powerful preservative properties of aluminous salts have been long known, and were not unfrequently resorted to by the ancients. Some remarkable instances of preservation by such a medium have accidentally occurred in our own country, among which the following may be here noticed. That distinguished officer of the American revolution, General Wayne, died thirty or forty years ago at Erie, Pennsylvania, and was buried in the vicinity of the lake; the body was not long since disinterred and removed by his son, who was astonished to find it in so perfect a state of preservation – and on examination it was discovered to have been deposited in an argillaceous soil strongly impregnated with a solution of alum.

Another interesting instance occurred many years since in the State of Maine, where the body of a person, missing for several months, was discovered in a clay pit, into which it had fallen, face downwards, enveloped in moist clay; the features were recognisable, although the parts of the body exposed to the air had long decayed to a skeleton.

Tho interesting and important subject of embalming, and of preserving and preparing anatomical objects, though much improved of late, is by no means exhausted. It has long been our desire to turn our attention in a special manner to such researches, and to have instituted numerous experiments, but imperative duties, and unexpected events, have interfered with such views for the present – we are not without a hope, however, that some one of our countrymen, more fortunately situated, will push his discoveries in a direction which affords so admirable a field for distinction.

The investigator might even be so fortunate as to discover the lost secret of the Florentine Physician, Segato, for petrifying animal substances! The problem is by no means an unphilosophical one, nor yet a chemical anomaly – it is only perfectly to saturate, by injection or otherwise, animal substance with the silicate of potash, or liquor of flints, – (Verre Soluble, of Fuchs,) and subsequently to immerse it in a weak acid solution: – the “methodus operandi,” remains to be discovered. (Consult Dumas, Traitè de Chimie, Vol. 2. p. 577, for an interesting chapter on “Verre Soluble.”)

Bodies of men, horses, &c., have been preserved for centuries in the bogs of Scotland and Ireland; it is to be presumed that these must have been immersed when the temperature was low, as we have always failed in attempting to preserve bodies in a saturated solution of gall nuts, during warm weather but an injection of the vessels with the tincture of galls has proved more successful.

We have already demonstrated by experiment that Tranchini’s arsenical solution is inadequate as a means of embalming, (vide Note, p. 211 of this volume.)

The mercurial corrosive sublimate, as a means of preserving from corruption, in addition to the palpable objections to its use designated by our author, exacts much time, labour, and expense, and not unfrequently fails altogether, whether applied to animal or vegetable substances.

The sulphate of copper, has more recently been proposed as a preservative of vegetable matter, especially as applicable to the blocks for paving streets; its properties as a preservative of animal matters have long been recognised. We have read of human bodies found in some parts of Germany, preserved entire for many years, by being deposited in a soil strongly impregnated with this salt.

About the close of the year 1839, we read in the Medical Gazette, an account of some experiments performed by Drs. Babington and Rees, with the view of preserving human bodies, for the purposes of dissection. After numerous unsuccessful trials with various antiseptic substances, they succeeded to their entire satisfaction by simply injecting the arteries of an adult with one gallon of pyroxilic spirits; of which substance, (which must not be confounded with pyroligneous acid, or pyro-acetic spirits,) a full account may be found in the “Annals of Philosophy,” N. S. VIII, 69. According to the authors, the advantage of employing Pyroxilic Spirits are – 1. Its extreme fluidity. 2. Its freedom from colour. 3. Its cheapness, being only one half the price of alcohol. 4. Its innoccuous nature, and its freedom from any corrosive action on dissecting instruments.

In the London Medical Gazette, for December, 1839, there is a memoir of Dr. Thomas Marshall, on the same subject, who thinks he has discovered a much cheaper and more effectual method – which consists in puncturing the surface of the body very generally with needles or scissors, &c., and brushing over the body with acetic acid, specific gravity 1.048, which must be brushed into it slowly and repeatedly, the same acid slightly diluted with water, to be introduced into the great cavities. This process, the author asserts, has not only preserved bodies perfectly sweet for months; but is capable of restoring the natural colour to parts already gangrenous.

To use the author’s own words, “two days’ application in this way, will beautify any subject.” The face of a corpse thus punctured, and supplied with compresses moistened with this acid, would be preserved, or even restored to its natural appearance, when discoloured by incipient putrefaction. John Hunter and other contemporaneous surgeons were in the habit of using diluted nitric acid for this purpose, but we have frequently seen this application fail, in our climate, when puncturation was omitted.

Most beautiful specimens of natural skeletons may be obtained by employing tadpoles; the animal must be divested of its skin, and the bones roughly cleaned of their flesh, and then suspended in water, exposed to the depredations of the tadpoles, who delicately remove, atom by atom, the softened flesh still adhering to the skeleton, by means of their suction mouths, in the course of a few hours, during warm weather; when the preparation is to be placed in position and dried. The aid of the ant has also been successfully invoked for a similar purpose. A small quadruped prepared as above, is placed in a box, and deposited in the vicinity of an ant’s nest; these industrious operatives rapidly remove the flesh from the bones.

As approaching the nearest to natural objects, we can securely recommend the accurate anatomical preparations in Carton, of Dr. Azoux, of Paris: the annual course of popular anatomy which he delivers, and which we have had the satisfaction of attending, are admirably and accurately illustrated by this means.

These preparations consist not only of every part of the human body, but of entire subjects, both male and female, including the gravid uterus. The only objection that can be urged against them, is the high price, say six hundred dollars for the entire adult subject.

Equally valuable is the more recent invention of another Parisian artist, of a material which he denominates “Carton pierreuse,” which appears to be a composition of “papier maché” and ground plaster of Paris, with which he executes anatomical models of great beauty and accuracy, including innumerable pieces of morbid anatomy, coloured to nature. Either of the above preparations are vastly superior to those in wax; they are more durable and more natural.

The study of minute anatomy has been yet further essentially aided, by the representations of the nerves, arteries, and veins of the head and face, by means of wires enveloped in wax, coloured after nature; these constitute very accurate and handsome preparations, and are the ornament of anatomical museums, as manufactured by M. Guy, adjoining the School of Medicine in Paris.

Preparations of the nerves and blood vessels of the entire subject, distinct from the body, are made in a similar manner; fine specimens of which are contained in the Museum of Comparative Anatomy in the Garden of Plants. The endless variety and perfection of the preparations, models, &c., as a means of prosecuting anatomical studies at the present time, are strongly contrasted with those at the command of the student in the days of Harvey; when the vessels and nerves were imperfectly displayed with great labour and expense by the tedious process of dissecting them from the body and drying them on a board. Valuable specimens of these kinds of preparations from the cabinet of Harvey, are still scrupulously preserved in the cabinet of the Royal College of Physicians of London.

It will only be necessary to add here, a few formulæ for the various kinds of injections used in the preparations of the blood vessels by the American and English anatomists, which will be observed to differ considerably from those used on the Continent, by reference to chapter seventh of this volume, where will also be found formulæ for the composition of varnishes: as regards the various methods of manipulation requisite for the preparation of each particular part of the body, these will be best obtained by the student’s personal application to the anatomical instructor or assistant connected with medical schools and teachers of practical anatomy.

We have found, by experience, that the great secret of success in anatomical injections, consists in first heating the part, or subject, thoroughly in hot water, the temperature of which, for an entire subject must be continued for ten or twelve hours, or until the deepest parts are equally heated; secondly, to take the precaution to reduce the colouring matters to an impalpable powder, and use the injection at as high a temperature as possible without injury to the tissues.

Formulæ for coarse Injections.

First liquify the wax, resin, and turpentine varnish, over a slow fire, in an earthen pot, then add the colouring matter, previously mixing it in another pot, with a very small quantity of the liquified composition, and stirring it well with a wooden pestle, so that the colouring ingredients may be intimately and smoothly blended; then add, by degrees, the whole of the ingredients, and when they have acquired their due heat, by being placed again over the fire, the injection will be ready for immediate use. A quantity of the ingredients of these injections may be kept prepared without the colouring matters, which may be added in their proper proportions, pro re nata. The ingredients become brittle by frequent melting, and turpentine varnish must be occasionally added. The same rules apply to the mixture of the following:

Formulæ for fine Injections.

* The varnishes go by measure.

Formulæ for Minute Injections

The size which constitutes the principal part of these formulæ, is made in the following manner:

Take the finest and most transparent glue, one pound, break it into pieces about the size of a nutmeg; put it into an earthen pot, and pour on it three pints of cold water, let it stand twenty-four hours, stirring occasionally with a stick; then set it over a slow fire for half an hour, or until the glue is perfectly dissolved; skim off the froth from the surface and strain it through flannel; then add the colouring ingredients.

Cold Injections

Whilst pursuing practical anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania, in the year 1814, under the direction of Professor Wistar, I became acquainted with a material for many years known in that institution under the denomination of “Spalding’s Cold Injection,”36 used for the purpose of filling the bloodvessels, without the preparatory measure of heating the subject or the injection ingredients – its use exacted great care on the part of the manipulator, and frequently failed; although, when successful, it surpassed all other coarse injections in minuteness. It was composed by grinding white lead and red lead, of each 4 ℥, in a sufficient quantity of boiled linseed oil to form a thick paste, adding, just previously to injecting, turpentine varnish 8 ℥.

Dr. Parsons gives the following formulæ for cold injections. (Vide Parson’s Anatomical Preparations, p. 2.)

“Cold coarse Injections.– This kind consists of colouring matter ground in boiled linseed oil upon a painter’s marble, and made of the consistence of white lead, ground in oil. After being finely levigated, a little lime water, in proportion of two table spoonsful to a pint, is to be incorporated by stirring. At the moment of filling the syringe with the injection, there should be added to it about one-third of its measure of Venice turpentine, which should be stirred quickly, and used immediately, as it very soon hardens. The use of the lime water is to harden the injection; but when white lead (which is almost always adulterated with carbonate of lime) is used, lime water is unnecessary.

“Cold fine Injections.– The same materials will answer, only adding to the Venice turpentine an equal quantity of spirits of turpentine. This is generally thrown in the vessel in small quantities at first, and followed by the above coarse injection.

“Cold minute Injection.– This may be the same as the warm minute injection; or it may consist of vermilion ground very fine in spirits of turpentine, adding a small portion of Venice turpentine, the whole being as fluid as milk, and when thrown in, should be followed by the cold coarse injection.”

Swan’s cold Injection

This consists of plaster of Paris, to which some colouring matter has been added, and water gradually poured on it until reduced to the consistence of cream – taking care to cleanse the syringe immediately after injecting. For making corroded preparations of the kidney, &c., the fusible metal may be thrown into the artery, after heating the organ (but not the artery) until it acquires the temperature of boiling water – to be afterwards treated as directed in this volume.

A simple injection, adequate to all useful purposes, where it is only intended to illustrate the bloodvessels, consists of tallow, melted and coloured. Or the following, which is in general use in the Parisian dissecting rooms: Lamp-black, ground in oil, adding the lime water and turpentine as above mentioned in the cold coarse injection.

It is difficult, at the present time, to ascertain to whom anatomy is justly indebted for the discovery and first introduction of arterial injections, &c. The first use of wax injections has been attributed to Swammerdam, in 1672, although it is probable that De Bils and Ruysch preceded him. The Sieur Disenclosses possessed a cabinet furnished with over one hundred pieces, many consisting of injected vessels, a description of which was published in 1727, but the collection must have existed many years previously.

Corroded preparations have been attributed to Francis Nichols, Professor of Anatomy, at Oxford, about the beginning of last century; size injections to Rouhaut, surgeon to the King of Sardinia; the fusible metal, to Homberg, of Paris, (this metal is composed of an equal proportion of tin, bismuth, and brass,) who used a pneumatic apparatus for forcing it into the vessels; the origin of Spalding’s cold injections has more recently been attributed to Mr. Allan Ramsay, a Scotch anatomist. (Vide Horner’s Practical Anatomy, p. xviii, Introduction.)

Mercurial Injections

These exact great skill and care in the operator. It requires an iron tube with a finely drawn glass pipe attached, supplied with a stop-cock – they are chiefly used for filling the lymphatics: the pipe must be introduced into these vessels at numerous points most distant from the heart, and these successively charged with the quicksilver.

The lymphatic vessels of the liver, the parotid glands, the vesiculæ seminales, the testicles, the mesentery of the tortoise, the lactiferous ducts of the mammæ, the kidneys of a cat, &c., form the best objects for a successful display of this kind of injection.

The hand of an emaciated individual may be readily injected, both arteries and veins, by fixing the pipe in the radial artery. The vessels are very apt to rupture during this operation, when it had been the custom to throw away the preparation as spoiled. But this accident we have found very readily remedied, by simply touching the ruptured vessel with a red hot wire, when, by the contraction of tonicity, the effusion of the quicksilver is suppressed. After the injection has been completed, the hand must be macerated in water, frequently changed, until the blood and cuticle are removed, when it may be dried and varnished, or suspended in spirits of turpentine.

We have seen admirable preparations in possession of Professor Flourens, in the Museum of the Jardin des Plantes, illustrating the vascular connection between mother and fœtus, by means of both quicksilver and size injections, passed both from the fœtal vessels to those of the uterus, and vice versa; a species of connection said to exist in all animals possessed of a simple placenta, and not cotyledinous.

Various other minute particulars connected with anatomical preparations in all its branches, will be found fully detailed in the present volume.

1

This paragraph, evidently empyrical in its bearing, is derogatory to Gannal as a man of science. We further believe that the pretended secret of his manipulations is of little consequence to the success of the operation: it is generally understood that to the fluid acetate of alumine (produced by the chemical action induced by the mixture of the solutions of acetate of lead and alum,) to be injected, a little arsenic is added, to prevent the formation of the byssus, and attacks of insects, also some carmine, to give to the subject a healthy colour. —Tr.

2

Momie or mumie: the etymology of this word is not well known: the Jesuit Kircher supposes that mum is a Persian word, and Pére Martini, an Arab name, signifying a dried corpse: other writers derive mummy from ammomum, the name of an aromatic plant. These conjectures I leave to the etymologists.

3

They burned the incense of Arabia, balms and perfumes of every kind filled a thousand vases, and the body is for ever preserved from corruption by essences possessing wonderful properties.

4

A benevolent woman washed the body of Tarquin, and rubbed it with perfumes.

5

The colour of the tissues is changed, however, being bleached by the acetate of alumine – but this is far preferable to the black putridity, which renders the anatomical subject so disgusting and unhealthy, when subjects are scarce. —Tr.

6

The above observations on the natural mummies of caverns, &c., apply equally to the numerous specimens of Indian mummies found in Peru, Brazil, the Western States of North America, &c. —Tr.

7

In the autumn of 1839, in my journey down the Rhine, I visited Popplesdorf, near Bonn, where there is an ancient church, formerly a monastery, called “the Kreuzberg.” It is situate on a high and dry hill. I descended its vault in order to examine some two dozen of mummified monks, some of them four centuries old. They were all habited in the costume of the period, and appeared to have died at an advanced age. These are natural mummies, or the result of simple desiccation, the skin resembling leather. It is probable that we may refer to similar causes, those interesting subjects discovered three or four years ago, in a cave of the church of St. Thomas, at Strasburg, viz., the mummified bodies of the Count de Naussau (Sarsbruck) and his daughter. These relics, six hundred years old, are both habited in the costume of that epoch; the coat, small-clothes, &c., of the father, have been replaced by exact imitations, but the habits of the daughter are actually those in which she was buried, consisting of a blue silk gown, richly ornamented with lace, with diamond rings on her fingers, and jewels on her breast. The body is well preserved, with the exception of the face: bunches of silvered flowers still adorn the top of the head, arms and shoulders. The features of the Count are almost perfect. I could not observe any external signs of artificial embalming having been resorted to. The skin was of a yellowish colour. The famous mummy of St. Carlo Boromeo, in the vault of the splendid Duomo di Milano, is another remarkable instance – the body is as black and solid as an Egyptian mummy; it was removed from a cemetery in the vicinity, after having remained there many years; no artificial means had been resorted to for its preservation.

The climate and soil of Egypt have been equally efficient in preserving vegetable life. The French naturalists who accompanied the army to Egypt, sent home fruits, living seeds, and other portions of twenty different plants, including the common wheat and onion of the present day – as was proved by the germination of the seeds and roots in Europe. —Tr.

8

This atmosphere, we have reason to believe, consists of the vapour of oil of turpentine. We examined some of these specimens, which, after a simple injection with the solution of the acetate of alumine, were exposed to a current of air, and found them as hard as horn and somewhat distorted. —Tr.

9

The reverend Father Kircher in his chapter on mummies, thinks that these bodies do not merit the name; here is what he says in his chapter iii, §. 2. “But these bodies, dried and preserved in the sands of Lybia, should not receive the name of mummy, because a mummy is, properly speaking, a body prepared after a special process.” Such ideas have caused much empyricism, and have been most powerful obstacles to the progress of the art of embalming.