History of Embalming
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“I have made another observation, which appears to me neither less curious nor less useful; it is, that in these mummies all the faces differ, some are remarkable for youth, others for beauty. Those who have seen whole mummies know that they have all a gilded mask, composed of several folds of silk cloth, which form a kind of very solid carton. I judged from this diversity, that the masks or cartons, crowded with hieroglyphic characters, which indicate, without doubt, the age, the actions, the manners, and the condition of the person, were also a natural representation of them, either that care had been taken to form this model during life, or that it had only been taken after death by applying these cloths to the face, after the same manner that we take the likeness of a corpse in the present day with plaster or wax. By this means, they not only preserved the bodies of a family entire, but, on entering these subterranean places where they were deposited, they could in an instant see represented all their ancestors for a thousand years, such nearly, as they were when living; nothing was more likely vividly to recall the recollection of their virtues, to perpetuate their memory and love in the hearts of their posterity.
“Not satisfied to preserve, by these means, the recollection of their princes and of their relatives, the Egyptians still further deposited their marble images near to their mummy. I have certain proofs of what I advance, in one of the most curious antiquities which I have acquired in this country. It is a figure in three pieces, representing a woman. The head and the feet are of black touchstone; the body is sheathed, and made of verd antique marble, rayed with white. These three pieces united, form a figure five feet five inches in height. It is very perfect, and of exquisite beauty. The priest who sold it to me with great scruples, and at a high price, swore by the Evangelist, that the figure was found in a pyramid seven or eight hundred years ago.
“In these chambers of which I speak, are found many niches, some large, others small, the chambers also often communicate, from a second to a third, and sometimes even to a fourth; but it is not to be understood, that all the bodies deposited in these sombre apartments, were all enclosed in cases and placed in these niches; the most of them were simply embalmed and swathed, as every one knows; after which they contented themselves in arranging them thus carelessly near each other; some of them were even placed in these tombs without being embalmed, or were so lightly so, that at the present time there remain only the bones among the linen which enveloped them, and which are half rotten. It is thus also are seen in some of these chambers heaps of bones mixed with these sort of linens, which have been left after they carried off the bodies which were preserved entire, to be exported beyond the seas. It is probable, that every family of any consideration, had for themselves one of these sepulchres; that the niches were destined to receive the heads of families, and that those of domestics and slaves were simply placed on the ground, after having been embalmed, or even without that ceremony; it is the same, without doubt, as regards the chiefs even of a family of less distinguished houses. They have even discovered, lately, in this plain of mummies, a mode, unknown until now, of burying the dead. At the extremity of this extensive plain and towards the mountains which bound it on the west, beds of carbon have been discovered, upon which bodies lie simply swathed with linen, and covered by a mat, seven or eight feet beneath the sands. Nevertheless, it ought to be observed, that these bodies, although they were not embalmed, or only slightly so, similar to those which they had neglected to enclose in cases, they were none the less protected from corruption.”
When I consider with what facility the Egyptians were able to preserve their dead, I can scarcely comprehend this passage of an author otherwise so ingenious: “An industry so complicated, could not have presented itself all at once to the genius of the people. Like all other nations of the earth, these could only have devoted themselves to the arts, properly so called, after securing their subsistence by agriculture. Review all these arts, arrange them in the order in which it might be supposed that they originated, and endeavour to determine the precise period of each, you will not be able to find this. History is mute on this point; and however rash it may be to interpret her silence, it is, nevertheless, evident, that the art of embalming, very ancient for us, was very new to the Egyptians, and, perhaps, ulterior to all others.” I do not deny that this mode of rebutting history with a priori views and conjectures, is any less positive than the method of historians, who do it often by acknowledged falsehood; but neither one of them are assuredly worth much.
The numerous facts which we have brought together in this chapter, appears to us most calculated to fix all the questions relative to embalming which long discussions and reasonings have lost sight of. They prove that bodies, placed in the bosom of the earth, covered only with a few feet of sand have been preserved for ages; that others scarcely embalmed, have been discovered untouched: after this, what becomes of the necessity of advanced arts, and perfection of ingenuity, when on the other hand, we see nations that have attained a high degree of civilization, with an immense mass of knowledge of all kinds, but in other conditions, geological and atmospherical, have not transmitted to us, although nearer our own epoch, any thing more than a little dust from the most gorgeous sepulchres?
The brief view which we cast upon the assemblage of facts which have been submitted to us, leads to totally different conclusions from those which precede, and which convinces us – 1st. Of all the arts, that of embalming ought the most readily to have presented itself to the mind of the Guanches, of the Egyptians, and of all those nations placed under analogous atmospherical and geological conditions: 2d. For no others does nature offer more positive lessons or more efficient aid: 3d. The Egyptians have embalmed from the earliest period of their civilization, before any art was very much advanced; four or five species of their mummies offer sufficient proof of this: 4th. The arts of perfecting and weaving tissues; of melting, fashioning, and colouring glass and metals; the delicate art of engraving on fine stones; the art of working wood, of painting it, of ornamenting it, and of giving it the éclat of gold, of varnish, and of enamel; the art of preparing perfumes, and of causing to enter even the very flesh, odoriferous powders, essences, and resins; all these arts have contributed, according to their degree of development, to complicate and perfect the art of making mummies, so simple at its commencement: 5th. Transported into countries where the exterior conditions are different, this art has been found inefficacious, and has scarcely ever attained its end. We shall have proofs of this in the following chapter.
CHAPTER V.
EMBALMING, FROM THE EGYPTIANS DOWN TO OUR DAY
Here facts are almost entirely wanting, and the history of the art we are studying, can only be followed in the recitals of historians, to control whose veracity we have no longer those monuments which Egypt offers us in such great numbers. Among the Jews, the Greeks, the Romans, and all modern nations, we see the honours of embalming accorded to kings, princes, and men of distinction; but no tomb that has been opened, has rendered a single mummy so perfect, as those which we admire among the Egyptians; and if some rare and distant examples inform us of a durable preservation, the marvellous and extraordinary details accompanying it causes us to doubt the fact itself.
Thus, on the assertion of Gabriel Clauder, they saw in the time of St. Augustin, the bodies of Alexander, and of Ptolemy; their tomb has been visited for many ages, and they were enabled to distinguish the skin preserved with the members. But, continued they, all bodies do not resemble that of Alexander the Great, which was during his life, according to the report of Plutarch, and of Quintus Curtius, of a composition so rare and wonderful, that his skin, mouth, and all his person, rendered a very agreeable odour, and perfumed his clothes. It is said that his corpse, by the negligence of his friends and of his captains, remained several days without being embalmed, and that, nevertheless, when they went to visit it, it was found sound, without blemish, having even the complexion as fresh and florid as if he had been living, although he died of a continued fever: his appearance was so natural that the Egyptians and Chaldeans, who were charged to embalm him after their own manner, were at first afraid to approach him, thinking he might not be dead.
Such marvellous accounts are not sufficiently in harmony with the rigorous course which we have thus far followed, to induce us seriously to discuss them; we confine ourselves to the statement of each down to our own day, where well established facts will offer ample matter for reflection.
The Jewish people, who, like others, testified their respect for the dead, never admit the care of embalming the body as a common usage. Thus, Abraham purchased the field where Sarah was buried; Joseph had the body of his father magnificently embalmed; Moses only carried away the bones of Joseph; David praised the people of Gilead, for having buried with pomp Saul and his sons, &c. In most of these examples, no mention is made of embalming; nevertheless, the body of Jesus Christ was embalmed.
The following is nearly the method: each sex took care of its dead; they, first of all, close the mouth and eyes of the expired person, afterwards they shaved, washed, and rubbed it with perfumes; they tied it with bands, and buried it in several cloths of very fine linen or woollen, and finally, they put it into the sepulchre. Cornelius Jansenius thinks that the myrrh and aloes which they employed, had the virtue powerfully to resist putrefaction. It is useless to say that this opinion is without foundation; that the great quantities of aromatics which they consumed, was rather for pomp, than for the long preservation of the subject. They took no pains to dry the body; they did not disembarrass it of the intestines, and, in spite of all these odoriferous drugs, as Penicher justly remarks, decomposition must soon have revealed itself, as was testified by the body of Lazarus when resuscitated.
Neither did the Persians, probably, propose by embalming, any thing beyond a very limited preservation; the passage which we cited in the first chapter is in proof of this. Besides, this custom with them does not possess a general character. Cyrus, King of Persia, said to his children: “when I have ceased to live, place my body neither in silver, nor in gold, nor in any other coffin, but return it immediately to the earth, for how can it be more happily and more desirably disposed, than to be returned to that which produces and which nourishes most excellent things?” It will be perceived, that Cyrus, in forbidding that any care should be taken with his body, does not allude to embalming, which, of all other means, would have been the most efficient in preventing its elements from returning to the common mother. The Greeks and the Romans, among whom we have particularized some examples of embalming, practised it in a coarse and imperfect manner. The examination of their method would be here without interest.
In order to recover some traces of this art, we must refer to De Bils, Ruysch, Swammerdam, Clauderus, &c. They only boast of their astonishing success, without giving us the means of studying their methods. What we do know of them suffices only to make us doubt, as we have seen, the perfection of their processes. De Bils, of whom we have not yet spoken, had a cabinet which excited the admiration of visiters; he never revealed his secret, and he even shed an odour of aromatics through his anatomical rooms, in order to deceive observers. Clauderus, who suspected the deception, applied his moistened finger to one of the bodies, and carrying it to his lips recognised the taste of salts. He started from this fact to attempt numerous researches, and succeeded in forming different compounds, of which the preservative powers are, without doubt, exaggerated; we shall give the analysis of them hereafter.
De Rasière, ècuyer, sieur Dèsenclosses, published in 1727, a description of a cabinet, in which he preserved a hundred specimens; the following extract from his pamphlet presents several descriptions of subjects skilfully prepared; it is preceded by an engraving, representing the cabinet, of which he gives the description.
Extract from the description of the cabinet of anatomy, of M. De Rasière, ècuyer, sieur Dèsenclosses, 1727This cabinet is eighty feet long, by sixteen wide, the glass windows are double, and exposed to the south, with a good ceiling and boarded, which renders it very proper for the preservation of the curious pieces which it encloses, and which are more than one hundred in number, differently worked, and arranged so that entire men are placed in the inferior departments, and the infants in the superior; all the fleshy pieces are enclosed in glass cases, and the skeletons in niches covered by a curtain.
The whole so disposed, that the skeletons and muscular pieces are arranged alternatively. We see, also, entire carcases of men, so arranged, that the head, which is placed on the large bones, is crowned by the vertebræ, and the ribs are suspended above. This order, added to the quantity of paintings and gildings which embellish the cases and cornices, produces a very fine effect. The side which looks to the south, includes a great number of bottles of all sizes, and contains objects taken from the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms.
The middle of the cabinet is occupied by numerous interesting objects. We first perceive a large glass case, which includes all the internal parts of man, and fetuses of all ages, and a microscope to view the circulation of the blood. Then appears a horse’s skeleton, mounted by a skeleton cavalier, holding a sword in his hand; an air pump; an anatomical table, upon which is a corpse, and an anatomist in wax, standing before it, dissecting.
Among the pieces of the cabinet mentioned by M. De Rasière, the most remarkable are: In the first glass case, the preparation of Gotard’s skeleton, in which are distinctly displayed the four hundred and fifty-six muscles. Second case: partial preparation of the eyes and the tongue, of the head, of the body, of the arms and legs. Third case: preparation of the muscles, arteries, veins, and nerves of the right side, and the skeleton of the left side. The fifth case is a complete preparation, in which the skin and fat has only been removed, and all the parts beneath separated. We here observe, first, the ascending aorta, which carries the blood to all the superior parts; second, the carotid arteries, which supply the head; third, the temporal arteries; fourth, the radial arteries (pulse;) fifth, the crural arteries, and an infinity of others even to the most delicate branches. The veins are filled with a black fluid. Sixth, preparation of the veins of the arm. Seventh, jugular veins; eighth, veins of the foot; ninth, vena cava ascendens. Eighth case: a subject resembling accurately a mummy or embalmed body, such as are brought from Egypt. All the flesh is covered by the skin, through which may be seen the veins and arteries filled with congealed and coloured wax. The hair of the head, the beard, and all the hair of the body, as well as the nails, are still attached to it. The eleventh glass case encloses the body of Nicholas Lefort, aged eighty-three years, a native of Douai, in Flanders: this subject is peculiarly tasteful, every thing being naturally arranged; the external muscles are divested of their fat, and all the arteries, veins, and nerves, which ramify upon the muscles, skin, &c., have been preserved, which renders this preparation as curious as it was difficult of execution. Twelfth case: preparation of the nerves.
But the author is silent regarding the manner of making these preparations. Let us endeavour to find in the writings of the time, a description of processes capable of producing such results.
Penicher, in his chapter fifth, (of embalming according to the moderns,) gives us the composition and properties of balm. “It is composed,” says he, “of different mixtures, both fluid and solid, calculated to arrest putrefaction, either by the aromatic virtues of sulphur and volatile salts, medicaments which enter into its composition, or by a strong bitter principle which consists in very penetrating particles, the property of which is to consume and attenuate the crude matters, which disposes and hastens the body to corruption; or by remedies, inheriting a quantity of particles which dissipate and absorb all putrescent moisture, or by their viscosity agglutinating the parts which ferment and rarify too readily; or, finally, by their astringency, which, fixing these same parts, prevents the resolution of all.”
It is easy to perceive, by the explanations which precede, that the embalmers themselves possess no very clear ideas of the success which they obtained. The nomenclature which we give below, will justify the doubt we have expressed.
The powders, which constitute the base of the balm, are made of all parts of the plants which fulfil the indications so confusedly announced. Such were the roots of angelica, imperatoria, galanga, acorus, carolina, caryophillata, gentian, enula campana, valerian, Florentine iris, flambe, calamus aromaticus, ginger, pyrethrum, cyperus, dictamus, rosewood, sassafras, guiacum, juniper, box wood, citron bark, oranges, canella, cassia lignea, tan, nutmeg, mace, cloves, cubebs, spicknard, colocynth, bay-berries, juniper-berries, and myrtle-berries, gall-nuts, cypress, anis-seed, cumin-seed, fennel-seed, coriander-seed, cardamon-seed, long, white, and black pepper, rue-leaves, thyme, absynth, savin, horehound, mugwort, laurel, mint, myrtle, calomint, balm, balmgentle, marjorum, rosemary, sage, summer savory, wild-thyme, pennyroyal, mountain-mint, hyssop, nepeta, basilic, scordium, flowers of saffron, roses, pale and red, stæchas, centaury, melilot, chamomile, germander, chamæpitys, hypericum, caraway-seed, dill-seed, lavender.
Many gums and resins entered into the composition of balm, such as resin, Burgundy pitch, ship-pitch, gum elemi, assafœtida, aloes, myrrh, galbanum, acacia, tucamahaca, benzoin, styrax calamite, fluid styrax, turpentine, camphor, cedria, all the species of balm; wood of aloes, tartar, potash, from the lees of wine, civet, castor, musk, ambergris, labdanum, Jew’s pitch, asphaltum, pisasphaltum, slacked-lime, plaster, sulphur, common salt, rock-salt, saltpetre, alum, amber, &c.
The article of compound drugs, is not less extensive, such as the tincture of musk, ambergris, civet, benzoin, styrax, aloes, myrrh. The distilled oils and essences of the plants which we have named, – spirits of wine, distilled myrrh, aloes, and amber, – is excellent for the preservation of the fetus.
The salt of Clauderus has also enjoyed a great reputation; the following is its composition: Dissolve one pound of common salt with a pound of oil of vitriol in a crucible, apply a cover closely luted, and distil it gradually in a sand bath; you may pour off a spirit very excellent for a lotion; in the bottom of the crucible will remain a caput mortuum, which should be dissolved according to art, and after evaporation, you will have the salt so much esteemed by the author. We may add here the brine, which is described in the collections of Charles de Maetz, (chap. 100, et 194; and chap. 23 of the book entitled Chemia Rationalis, and also in the work of Blanchard,) they advise that after a corpse has been emptied and cleaned of its excretions, it be placed in a leaden coffin, and there macerated in a sufficient quantity of pure oil of turpentine, and after some days of maceration, to wash it with spirits of wine to remove the odour, then sprinkle it with a strong tincture of myrrh and aloes, which they call balsamum mortuorum, and that it be finally dried in the sun.
I shall not now enter into the endless discussions upon the different species of salts, which some boast of for embalming, whilst others consider them injurious to the preservation of bodies. I abstain also, from speaking of lime, to which, however, wonders have been attributed: thus it was lime which preserved the body of Afra: and in the year 1523, under the pontificat of Adrian VI., the body of Saint Thomas, the Apostle, was likewise found towards the Gulf of Coromandel, endued, and covered with a cement made of lime and urine; the bones were very white, and along side of him the spear of his lance, a part of the cane which had served him during his journey, and an earthen vase which had been sprinkled with his blood. Notwithstanding these remarkable examples, if they are true, the authors who relate them give no importance to the processes to which we owe them, they even complain of the sordid views of those, who, in order to augment the mass of matters, do not hesitate to mix thereto plaster, ashes, &c. We give the description of some of these mixtures composed of the substances which we have enumerated.
1. —Balsamic Wine.
Reduce these drugs to a coarse powder, macerate for a few hours in wine, and boil slightly.
Usages. – Lotion for the interior parts of the body; and to disinfect the chamber during the operation.
2. —Compound Brandy.
Macerate in a sea-bath for twenty-four hours, in fifteen pints of best brandy, with as much distilled vinegar.
3. —Vinegar for washing the head, the breast, the belly, and for injections.
Reduce to a coarse powder, and macerate in forty pints of rose-vinegar; then strain for use.
4. —Another.
Let it boil a little, and add two pints of brandy; better than the preceding.
The embalmer ought to have several large sponges; about four pounds of tow to dry the blood and absorb the powders; cotton for the mouth, nose, and ears; coarse brush for rubbing the exterior of the body with the liniment. The artist should have, besides, two ells of cere-cloth, which he can prepare for himself after one of the following formulæ:
1. —Cere-cloth.
Melt and mix them over a slow fire, then draw the linen through it frequently so as to impregnate both sides.