English Caricature and Satire on Napoleon I. Volume I (of 2)
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Pardon must be begged for this digression, and the matter in hand strictly attended to.
Napoleon left Egypt on August 23, 1799, and reached France October 8 of that year. The causes for this step will be detailed a little later on. Meanwhile the caricaturist was watching events on the Continent, and, after his lights, depicting them. With those not personally affecting Napoleon we have nothing to do; and of him – Egypt being a far cry – we have but few, until after his return, when he was brought prominently before European notice. Gillray thought he saw his power declining, and on September 1, 1799, he published ‘Allied Powers, Unbooting Égalité.’ In this picture Napoleon is being badly treated. One foot is on a Dutch cheese, which a Hollander is plucking away; a British tar has him fast round the waist, and arms; whilst a Turk, of most ferocious description, his dress being garnished with human ears, is pulling his nose, and slashing him with his scimitar, St. Jean d’Acre, which is reeking with blood. Prussia, backed up by Russia, is drawing off Italy, which serves as a boot for one leg, and, with it, a large quantity of gold coin.
The causes which induced Napoleon to leave Egypt cannot better be made known, and understood, than by quoting from De Bourrienne, who was an actor in this episode. He says: ‘After the battle,49 which took place on the 25th July, Bonaparte sent a flag of truce on board the English Admiral’s ship. Our intercourse was full of politeness, such as might be expected in the communications of the people of two civilised nations. The English Admiral gave the flag of truce some presents, in exchange for some we sent, and, likewise, a copy of the French Gazette of Francfort, dated 10th June, 1799.50 For ten months we had received no news from France. Bonaparte glanced over this journal with an eagerness which may easily be conceived.
‘“Heavens!” said he to me, “my presentiment is verified: the fools have lost Italy. All the fruits of our victories are gone! I must leave Egypt!”
‘He sent for Berthier, to whom he communicated the news, adding that things were going on very badly in France – that he wished to return home – that he (Berthier) should go along with him, and that, for the present, only he, Gantheaume, and I, were in the secret. He recommended him to be prudent, not to betray any symptoms of joy, nor to purchase, or sell, anything.
‘He concluded by assuring him that he depended on him. “I can answer,” said he, “for myself and Bourrienne.” Berthier promised to be secret, and he kept his word. He had had enough of Egypt, and he so ardently longed to return to France, that there was little reason to fear he would disappoint himself by any indiscretion.
‘Gantheaume arrived, and Bonaparte gave him orders to fit out the two frigates, the Muiron and the Carrère, and the two small vessels, the Revanche and the Fortune, with a two months’ supply of provisions for from four, to five, hundred men. He enjoined his secrecy as to the object of these preparations, and desired him to act with such circumspection that the English cruisers might have no knowledge of what was going on. He afterwards arranged with Gantheaume the course he wished to take. Nothing escaped his attention.’
Bonaparte concealed his operations with much care; but still some vague rumours crept abroad. General Dugua, the commandant of Cairo, whom he had just left, for the purpose of embarking, wrote to him on August 18 to the following effect: —
‘I have this moment heard, that it is reported at the Institute, you are about to return for France, taking with you Monge, Berthollet, Berthier, Lannes, and Murat. This news has spread like lightning through the city, and I should not be at all surprised if it produced an unfavourable effect, which, however, I hope you will obviate.’
Bonaparte embarked five days after the receipt of Dugua’s letter; and, as may be supposed, without replying to it.
On August 18, he wrote to the Divan of Cairo as follows: ‘I set out to-morrow for Menouf, from whence I intend to make various excursions to the Delta, in order that I may, myself, witness the acts of oppression which are committed there, and to acquire some knowledge of the people.’
He told the army but half the truth: ‘The news from Europe,’ said he, ‘has determined me to proceed to France. I leave the command of the army to General Kleber. The army shall hear from me forthwith. At present I can say no more. It costs me much pain to quit troops to whom I am so strongly attached. But my absence will be but temporary, and the general I leave in command has the confidence of the government, as well as mine.’
At night, in the dark, on August 23, he stole on board: and who can wonder if the army expressed some dissatisfaction at his leaving them in the lurch? From the many works I have consulted, whilst writing this book, I can believe the words of General Danican (who has been before quoted) in ‘Ring the Alarum Bell!’ – ‘Immediately after Buonaparte’s midnight flight from Egypt, with the Cash of the army, he was hung in effigy by the Soldiers; who, in dancing round the spectacle, sang the coarsest couplets (a copy of which I have now in my possession) written for the occasion, to the tune of the Carmagnole, beginning: “So, Harlequin has at length deserted us! – never mind my boys, never mind; he will at last be really hanged; he promised to make us all rich; but, instead, he has robbed all the cash himself, and now’s gone off: oh! the scoundrel Harlequin, &c., &c.”’
This charge against Napoleon, of running away with the treasure-chests, is, like almost all the others, of French origin. Hear what Madame Junot says, as it shows the feeling of the French army on this point, that some one had taken them (for Napoleon’s benefit): ‘A report was circulated in the army that Junot was carrying away the treasures found in the pyramids by the General in Chief. He could not carry them away himself’ (such was the language held to the soldiers), ‘and so the man who possesses all his confidence is now taking them to him.’ The matter was carried so far that several subalterns, and soldiers, proceeded to the shore, and some of them went on board the merchantman which was to sail with Junot the same evening. They rummaged about, but found nothing; at length they came to a prodigious chest, which ten men could not move, between decks, “Here is the treasure!” cried the soldiers; “here is our pay that has been kept from us above a year; where is the key?” Junot’s valet, an honest German, shouted to them in vain, with all his might, that the chest did not belong to his chenerâl. They would not listen to him.
‘Unluckily, Junot, who was not to embark till evening, was not then on board. The mutineers seized a hatchet, and began to cut away at the chest, which they would soon have broken up, had not the ship’s carpenter come running out of breath. “What the devil are you at?” cried he, “mad fellows that you are: stop! don’t destroy my chest – here’s the key.” He opened it immediately, and lo! – the tools of the master carpenter.’
Barre, of course, alludes to this alleged robbery, and Combe writes of his desertion of his troops as follows: —
Aboukir castle having won,Our hero thought it best to run.The bravest man will run away,When it is dangerous to stay;But, as he to his troops declared,By him all dangers should be shared,And that on no account he’d leave them,’Twas proper he should now deceive them.The cunning he display’d in fight,He manifested in his flight.On some pretence, it seems, he wroteTo certain generals a note,Acquainting them with what he wanted,The time and place, too, he appointed.These generals, so well they fared,The fame of his desertion shared.When to th’ appointed place they got,Nap was already on the spot;And, what of all things made them glad,The military chest he had!He left his army, – but we findHe left these words for them behind:‘This parting grieves me sore, altho’ meantTo be for only a short moment.’This caricature is presumably by Gillray, although it is not signed by him; and, as it was published on March 8, 1800, it is absolutely prophetic, for Napoleon is pointing to a future imperial crown and sceptre. This is especially curious, as it shows how, even then, the public opinion of England (of which, of course, the caricaturist was but a reflex) estimated him.
CHAPTER XVIII
NAPOLEON’S ARRIVAL IN PARIS – HIS POPULARITY – DISSOLUTION OF THE COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED – GRAPHIC DESCRIPTION OF THE SCENE – NAPOLEON, SIÈYES, AND DUCOS NAMED CONSULSNapoleon arrived in Paris at, for him, a happy moment, for the Directory was then as good as defunct. There was a feeling that a strong hand was needed to guide the affairs of the nation, and Generals Moreau and Jubert had already been offered the post of First Magistrate of the Republic, and each had declined the honour. When Napoleon landed, he was hailed as The Man, and his arrival was telegraphed to Paris, where it created an immense sensation.
On the day after his arrival, he had an interview with the Directors, to whom he explained the state of the army in Egypt, and told them, how, having heard of the disasters that had befallen their armies, he had returned home to help them; but, although he was offered his choice of commands, he would have none of them, and lived quietly at Paris. The Council of Five Hundred even gave him a public dinner51– but he was steadily working out the ends he had in view.
What that was, was evident to the English people, for his aim was shown very amusingly in a caricature by an unknown artist (November 1799). Napoleon, who, even then, is represented as crowned, appears as a crocodile, in jackboots and sword, squeezing the life out of two frogs, whilst the dismay of the others is most comically rendered: a bodyguard of crocodiles, in military uniform, back up their leader.
On November 9, he was made commandant of the forces in Paris, which prepared him for the explosion of the 18th Brumaire, year 8 (November 10, 1799). The expulsion of the Council is most graphically told in the ‘Times’ of November 18, eight days after the event, showing how slowly news travelled then. The scene must have been painted by an eye-witness, for it gives the whole previous debate – which at last turned on Napoleon’s appointment as commandant. It is so well told, I cannot help giving it in its entirety.
‘Grandmaison. “We are only offering crossing and contradicting propositions, without coming to any decision: I move that you begin by declaring the appointment of Buonaparte to be unconstitutional.”
‘“Yes, yes,” was resounded from several parts of the Hall.
‘L. (ucien) Buonaparte quitted the Chair, which he gave up to Chazal, and said, “I entreat the Council calmly to reflect on the commotion that has manifested itself. It may not be needless to represent” – (Here he was interrupted by a loud voice, who said, “Do not attempt to amuse us”) – “I propose” (continued Lucien Buonaparte) “that you summon the General who commands to appear before you.”
‘“We do not acknowledge him,” exclaimed several Members.
‘“When cool consideration” (observed Buonaparte) “shall have stilled in your breasts the extraordinary emotion which you have testified” (murmurs), “you will, perhaps, be sensible of the injustice done General Buonaparte. Whatever may be the event, I now, in your presence, lay down on the altar of the Country, the badge of Magistracy with which the people had invested me.”
‘On saying these words, he laid down his badge of office on the President’s table: upon which the doors of the Hall were opened, and twenty Grenadiers entered. They advanced towards the Bureau, took L. Buonaparte into custody, and, placing him in the midst of them, they conducted him out of the Hall.
‘The Council was seized with extreme agitation. Cries, vociferations, and tumultuous confusion, arose from the Members suddenly quitting their places. Not a word could be distinctly heard.
‘Grandmaison, Blin, Delbrel, Bigonnet, Sherlock, Crochon, and several other Members, pressed forward towards the tribune.
‘Sherlock made an effort to speak, but could scarcely make himself heard among the tumult. “I move,” said he, “that you call back your President, whose resignation you have not accepted.”
‘“He could have done nothing better,” exclaimed several Members, “than to have given it in.”
‘Meantime, at a distance was heard the sound of drums that beat the pas de charge… Soon after, for the third time, the doors of the Hall were thrown open; and a third time the spectators endeavoured precipitately to escape by leaping out of the windows.
‘An officer came forwards, followed by a numerous guard, exclaiming with a loud voice, “General Buonaparte orders the Hall to be cleared.” Upon which, the troops advanced into the Hall, the further part of which remained occupied by the Deputies, who had not retired. The soldiers suspended their march for a moment, in order to afford time for the Hall to be cleared. About a Dozen of Members, among whom was Blin, remained near the Tribune, or at the Bureau; one of them who was at the Tribune, exclaimed,
‘“What are you, Soldiers? are you anything else than guardians of the National Representation; and do you dare to menace its safety, to incroach on its independence – is it thus that you tarnish the laurels which your courage has won?”
‘This harangue was coldly listened to by the soldiers, who advanced into the Hall with drums beating. The Members who stood near the Bureau and the Tribune, were at length obliged to yield their places to the soldiers, who took possession of them. As the latter advanced into the Hall, these members went out at the opposite door. In a few minutes the Hall was completely cleared. It was then five o’clock.
‘Several members set out immediately for Paris, others remained at St. Cloud to observe the deliberations of the Council of Elders, and the extraordinary movement of the troops who filled the square of the palace. From time to time were heard the cries of Vive Buonaparte! Vive la République!
‘General Buonaparte, on hearing the Council of Five Hundred had withdrawn, advanced towards the soldiers and harangued them.
‘He entreated them to remain calm, and to rest assured that the good cause should triumph. They all answered by shouts of Vive Buonaparte!’
The scene depicted in the accompanying illustration is somewhat dramatically told by Napoleon himself in his proclamation of 19th Brumaire: ‘I presented myself before the Council of Five Hundred, alone, unarmed, my head uncovered, just as the Ancients had received and applauded me. My object was to restore to the majority the expression of its will, and to secure to it its power.
‘The stilettos which had menaced the Deputies, were instantly raised against their deliverer. Twenty assassins rushed upon me, and aimed at my breast. The grenadiers of the legislative body, whom I had left at the door of the hall, ran forward, and placed themselves between me and the assassins. One of these brave grenadiers (Thorne52) had his clothes pierced by a stiletto. They bore me off.’
Th’ appointed meeting now took place,Producing tumult and disgrace,Some of the members, when desired,Refused to take the oath required,Insisting Nap should not be sparedBut as an outlaw be declared.As President Nap’s brother sat,So Lucien hemm’d and haw’d at that.But so outrageous was the strife,He found it hard to save his life;His eloquence he now display’d,‘Napoleon must be heard,’ he said.Then Boney came – in great dismay;Th’ Assembly ordered him away —But such an order was mere fudge,The brave Napoleon scorn’d to budge;And several began to push in,To tear to pieces Nap and Lucien.Nap gave the word – his troops attended,By grenadiers he was defended;Tremendous now the hurly-burly,Each phiz appear’d confounded surly;They drew their daggers in a rage,And civil war began to wage.Amidst these violent attacks,Now some were thrown upon their backs,And others fell upon their faces,And others, on their – proper places;While many, uttering sad groans,Were found upon their marrow bones.Gillray, of course (November 21, 1799), touched on it, but not very effectively, his picture ‘Exit Libertè a la Francais! – or – Buonaparte closing the Farce of Égalité, at Saint Cloud, near Paris, November 10, 1799,’ being the weakest caricature of any on this subject. Napoleon is directing his troops, who are charging the Council with fixed bayonets.
The Council met again at night, but simply to do as they were bid. Thorne, the grenadier with the torn coat, was decreed to have deserved well of his country, as were also Napoleon, Lefebvre, Murat, Berthier, and many others. Sixty-one members of the Council were expelled, and Article two of the Resolution, passed that night, says, —
‘The Legislative Body creates provisionally an Executive Consular Committee, composed of Citizens Syeyes and Roger Ducos, Ex-Directors, and Buonaparte, General. They shall bear the name of Consuls of the French Republic.’
CHAPTER XIX
NAPOLEON TAKES THE LEAD – SIÈYES AND DUCOS ARE DEPOSED – CAMBACÉRÈS AND LEBRUN NAMED SECOND AND THIRD CONSULS – NAPOLEON’S LETTER TO GEORGE THE THIRD – REPLY TO SAMENapoleon had now got his foot fairly on the ladder, but it was he alone who was to mount it. At the first meeting of the Consuls, Sièyes asked, ‘Which of us is to preside?’ Ducos had grasped the position, and replied, ‘Do you not see that the General presides?’
There is a caricature by Cawse (November 30, 1799) of ‘Satan’s return from Egypt Earth. Discovered in Council with Belzebub and Belial – a Sketch after Fuseli53!!!’ Here Napoleon forms the centre figure, one foot resting on a skull, the other on the Marseillaise hymn and the Council of Five Hundred. Behind him is a glory, with a trinity formed of three daggers – Sièyes, Ducos, and Buonaparte. Devils surround him, and, at his feet, is a howling French mob.
Our hero, now, the people guided,And a new government provided.First Consul, modestly he claim’d,Two others were Sub-Consuls named;But these were not in Boney’s way,For the first Consul had full sway.And now these Consuls took an oath,For Nap to swear was never loth.Thus elevated, JosephineImagin’d she would be a queen;But she by Nap was harshly told,That six and forty was too old;His mother, who the lady hated,Advised him to be separated;By her persuasions, Nap, of courseBegan to think of a divorce.He ponder’d ev’ry afternoon,And rubbing once his forehead, soonThe lady’s banishment decreed,Because – their tempers disagreed.In fact, her faults he recollected,And her caresses now rejected.But, as ’twill not improve our morals,We’ll pass these matrimonial quarrels.As Nap a love of pow’r betray’d,He great munificence display’d;For he rewarded with donations,His friends, especially relations.He to his mother acted handsome,As he bestowed on her a grand sum;For Joe, and Lucien, he provided,Who, at this time, in France resided —How suddenly success awaits men!Both Joe, and Lucien, he made Statesmen.It was not probable that Napoleon would rest contented with the provisional position he occupied. A fresh government had to be constituted, of which he must be the head: and so the Constitution of December 13 was manufactured, and afterwards passed into law. Article 23 provided, ‘The sittings of the Senate are not to be public.’ Article 24, ‘The Citizens Sièyes, and Roger Ducos, the Consuls quitting their functions, are appointed members of the Conservative Senate. They shall assemble along with the second and third Consuls nominated by the present Constitution. These four Citizens shall appoint the Majority of the Senate, which shall then complete itself, and proceed to the elections entrusted to it.’
Article 39. ‘The Government is entrusted to three Consuls appointed for ten years, and indefinitely re-eligible. Each of them is to be elected individually with the distinct quality of Chief, Second, or Third Consul. The first time the Third Consul shall only be named for five years. For the present time General Bonaparte is appointed Chief Consul, Citizen Cambaceres, now Minister of Justice, Second Consul, and Citizen Lebrun, Member of the Committee of Antients, Third Consul.’ Article 41. ‘The Chief Consul is to promulgate the laws: he is to name and revoke at pleasure the Members of the Council of State; the Ministers, Ambassadors, and other principal foreign agents, the officers of the army by land and sea, the members of local administration and the Commissioners of the Government at the Tribunals. He is to appoint all Judges, Criminal and Civil, as well as Justices of the Peace, and the Judges of Cassation, without the power of afterwards revoking them.’ Article 43. ‘The salary of the Chief Consul shall be 500,000 francs for the 8th year’ (ending September 22, 1800). ‘The salary of the other two Consuls shall be equal to three-tenths of that of the first.’ So that we see Napoleon fully knew how to take care of himself.
On January 1, 1800, Gillray published ‘The French Triumvirate settling the New Constitution’ – and mighty wise they look. (See next page.)
In the year 1799, Consols ranged from 55 in January to 62¼, the closing price in December. Bread, however, was dear, the average of the quartern loaf being 13d.
It was in the latter part of this year that Napoleon notified to George the Third his elevation to the dignity of First Consul, and appropriately chose Christmas Day on which to date his letter, which breathed (sincerely or not) ‘Peace on earth, goodwill towards men.’
Paris 5 Nivôse year VIII. of the Republic.Called by the wishes of the French Nation to occupy the first magistracy of the French Republic, I deem it desirable, in entering on its functions, to make a direct communication to your Majesty.
Must The War, which for four years, has ravaged every part of the world, be eternal? Are there no means of coming to an understanding?
How can the two most enlightened nations of Europe, more powerful and stronger than is necessary for their safety and independence, sacrifice to the idea of a vain grandeur, the benefits of commerce, of internal prosperity, and domestic happiness? How is it they do not feel that peace is as glorious as necessary?
These sentiments cannot be strangers to the heart of your Majesty, who rules over a free nation, with no other view than to render them happy.
Your Majesty will only see in this overture my sincere desire to effectually contribute to a general pacification, by a prompt step, free and untrammeled by those forms, which, necessary, perhaps, to disguise the apprehensions of feeble states, only prove in the case of strong ones, the mutual desire to deceive.
France and England, by abusing their strength, may for a long time yet, to the misery of all other nations, defer the moment of their absolute exhaustion; but I will venture to say that the fate of all civilised nations, depends on the end of a war which envelopes the whole world.
signed Bonaparte.The British Government did not quite see it, but considered that the claws of the French eagle required yet more cutting. They had been partially operated on at the Nile, and at Acre. Italy was no longer under French rule. Suwarrow’s victories had severely crippled the French, who were, besides, very weak financially. Add to this, that there were 140,000 Austrians gathering along the Rhine. But still it was judged they were yet too sharp for the peace of Europe.
The answer from the English Court,Vex’d Nap, according to report:’Twas to the Minister address’d,It being candidly confess’dThat there appear’d not the least causeTo break through ceremonial laws;In this his Majesty agreed,Peace was desirable indeed,If that his Majesty were ableT’ obtain one permanent and stable;But that at present there was poor hopeFor England, and indeed for Europe,Till France her lawful princes own’dThe Bourbons – whom she had dethron’d.This, really, was the tenor of Lord Grenville’s reply, dated January 4, 1800, which is far too long, and uninteresting, to reproduce.
Gillray caricatured this letter of Napoleon’s (February 24, 1800) in ‘The Apples and the Horse dung, or Buonaparte among the Golden Pippins; from an old Fable. Explanation. – Some horse dung being washed by the current from a neighbouring dunghill, espied a number of fair apples swimming up the stream, when, wishing to be thought of consequence, the horse dung would every moment be bawling out, “Lack-a-day, how we apples swim!” See Buonaparte’s “Letter to his Majesty,” and Mr. Whitbread’s “Remarks upon the Correspondence between Crowned Heads.”’ Although Gillray did not choose a very savoury subject to illustrate his caricature, yet there is much humour in it.