Psychotherapy

CHAPTER I

DIABETES

Diabetes is an affection of metabolism definitely recognized as due to serious organic changes, though existing in several forms. We are not as yet absolutely sure whether there may not be quite different organic diseases in the various forms. Of one thing clinical experience has given us assurance, that the condition of the patient's nervous system is extremely important. While certain forms of diabetes are due to pancreatic changes and others perhaps to changes in the liver or other abdominal organs, the nervous system itself can affect the consumption and excretion of sugar within the body. Certain injuries, especially, as pointed out by animal experiments, irritation of the floor of the fourth ventricle may produce passing diabetes. The symptom may also occur in connection with states of the nervous system. Glycosuria, or the passage of sugar in the urine, may occur simply as alimentary glycosuria; and while this is usually due to an excess of sugar in the diet, the glycosuria itself is predisposed to by neurotic conditions in the patient. Diabetic patients are made worse by worry of any kind and particularly by solicitude about themselves and their ailment. Hence, the place that psychotherapy has in the treatment of the disease.

Unfavorable Suggestion.—In most cases of diabetes, however, probably the most important factor in the production of symptoms is the serious disturbance of mind. The patient has an incurable disease and is frankly told so. For the physician the word "incurable" means only that his remedies are as yet inefficient in preventing certain nutritional or metabolic disturbances, and that these will be likely to continue in spite of all he can do. For the patient "incurable" means that he has a disease for which the doctor confesses that he can do nothing—which is not true—and that it is almost surely progressive, while the many reports of death from diabetes of which he hears only confirm the impression that he has not long to live and that most of the time remaining will have to be spent in irksome care of himself and almost superhuman self-denial.

As a consequence of this train of unfavorable suggestions, the history of practically every case of the milder form of diabetes in older people contains a period in which, shortly after the discovery that they had the disease, they suffered more severely from it than at any other time. As a rule, the discovery was accidental. The occurrence of a succession of boils, the development of a carbuncle, occasionally an intractable eczema or a great itchiness of the skin, or an irritation of the external urinary organs, the occurrence of cramps at night, or neuralgia pains, have led to an examination of the urine and the finding of a considerable quantity of sugar. As a rule, the patients are at once put on a diet containing little starch and no sugar, and after a short time most of the bothersome symptoms of the diabetes have ceased. Their own worry, however, the strictness of the regimen, the craving for starches, the decrease in weight from the limitation of diet, have made them profoundly miserable. Their feelings have been translated into the definite conclusion that the disease must still be making progress since they feel so miserable, and they have suffered more from their mental state than from their diabetes.

This is as true of physicians themselves when they are sufferers from diabetes as of ordinary patients. Indeed, it seems that physicians make themselves more profoundly miserable because of their supposed knowledge of the disease than other people do. I have had the confidences of more than a dozen physicians who were sufferers from diabetes, and all of them admitted that they had suffered more from their scare over the disease and from trying to maintain a sugar-free diet than from the effects of their ailment. The lowering of nutrition reacts upon the nervous system, already laboring under the strain of the persuasion that an incurable disease is present, and the consequence is a whole series of nervous and often mental symptoms, especially of the depressive kind, that still further disturbs digestion, interferes with peristalsis, causes constipation or alternate constipation and diarrhea, leads to wakefulness at night, inability to concentrate attention and a constant state of worry. All this reacts upon the system and further increases the diabetes, that is, the inability to use sugar properly, and adds to its elimination through the urine.

Favorable Suggestion.—Just as soon as these patients realize that people have often had considerable quantities of sugar—two per cent. or more—in their urine for years without serious consequences and that most diabetics die, not from the affection itself, but from intercurrent disease, the reassurance of mind which ensues makes their nervous system cease to be a factor in the further disturbance of metabolism and they are able to consume more starch and sugar without increasing the amount of sugar in their urine. This is not true, of course, for the severe diabetes that attacks young people. These run a rather rapid course and usually end in from one to two years in diabetic coma or some complication connected directly with the diabetes.

Danger of Over-treatment.—To strive to keep the urine of diabetic patients free or nearly free from sugar is practically always sure to produce a serious effect upon general nutrition and to disturb the patient's mind and nervous system. Very often, however, an attempt of this kind is made. Doctors who suffer from diabetes are too prone to watch their urine carefully from day to day and this only emphasizes their solicitude about themselves, impairs their digestion, and produces such preoccupation of mind that all their functions are sure to be disturbed. After a time they learn that their general condition is a more important question than the amount of sugar in their urine. If they can maintain their weight with reasonable freedom from the secondary symptoms of diabetes, then the primary symptom—the amount of sugar in the urine—may be almost or quite neglected.

Interval Treatment.—Van Norden has pointed out that if diabetic patients are occasionally made to observe for a couple of weeks at a time an absolute diet, these intervals seem to form a new starting-point for metabolism and enable the patient to increase his power of utilizing sugar and consequently to diminish his pathological elimination of it. Patients look forward with interest to these periods, provided that in the intervals they are allowed a certain amount of starch; and each one of them seems a landmark on the road to recovery. There is a strong element of suggestion in this that acts very favorably and greatly influences the actual power of such intermissions to help nature recover her lost metabolic faculties. This is certainly a better method of treatment than the attempt to keep up an absolute diet which so easily produces the other evil of nervousness that adds to the diabetes, so that there is question of choosing between two evils, and the lesser evil includes particularly the reassurance of the patient.

The Individual in Diabetes.—While diabetes is a question of glycosuria and usually of hyperglykemia, and the consumption of any form of cane sugar or of starch convertible into it, will usually increase the diabetic tendency, not all the forms of starch which may change into cane sugar have the same effect in all individuals or undergo the same modifications. Some patients, for instance, stand milk better than others and may take large quantities of it so that there is less craving for starchy foods. Most patients can take potatoes better than bread even when there is the same equivalent of starch in each. Those who have been accustomed to potatoes from their early years sometimes stand them well and may be able to take them almost with impunity. I have noted in several cases that the Irish and Scotch, accustomed to oatmeal from their early years, seem to be able to take notable quantities of this food when suffering from diabetes without having a marked increase of sugar in the urine.

There are forms of sugar that satisfy the craving of patients for sweets and may be taken in considerable quantities without seriously disturbing metabolism. Honey is one of these, its sugar occurring in the form of mannite, and there are other substances related to it that probably can be employed to advantage. It must not be forgotten that what seems to be sugar in the urine of certain patients, that is, grape sugar, has proved on more careful investigation to be one of the other chemical forms of sugar. We have a number of cases of pentosuria on record in which patients were excreting penatomic sugar, but had not glycosuria, though their urine responded to the ordinary tests for this. It seems well not only to be sure of the diagnosis in these cases, but to use what we have learned to make patients feel that their condition though not curable is by no means hopeless. Care must be exercised to take advantage of every possible individual peculiarity for reassurance, for the extension of the diet in any possible way, and for the satisfaction of the cravings which are so likely to come to these patients. Some of their craving is really due to the suggestion that they cannot have a particular article of diet. Whenever any human being knows that he cannot have a thing, the liking for it grows by suggestion and then it may become an obsession. To be allowed even small quantities of it is often enough to enable patients to overcome this and at least put them in a better state of mind.

Physical Condition.—The most important element in the treatment of the less severe cases of diabetes is exercise in the open air. Whatever the ultimate solution of the mystery of diabetes may be, there is no doubt but that the muscles are an important factor in our disposal of sugar within the body. The material which is burned up in the muscles during movement is a form of sugar derived directly from the starch and sugar ingested. When diabetics exercise freely much more of their sugar is consumed within the body and much less of it eliminated through the kidneys than when very little or no exercise is taken. It is interesting to note the difference in the amount of sugar in the urine when patients are taking abundant exercise and when they are taking practically none. Even on a much more liberal diet the percentage of sugar is likely to be less in the exercising patient. One of the results of the diabetic scare is likely to be almost a cessation of muscular exercise. This is partly due to the fact that one of the results of diabetes in many cases is a sense of fatigue in the muscles on comparatively little exertion. Indeed, this is sometimes the first symptom that is noted and that calls the attention of the patient to the fact that there is something seriously wrong with him.

This occurs when there is a serious disturbance of sugar metabolism so that the patient who consumes large amounts of starch and sugar is excreting most of it. Just as soon as the diet is made a little more rigid and the sugar metabolism improves, then exercise can be taken and will benefit the patient. This is particularly true of women suffering from diabetes whose depression on being told that they are suffering from an incurable disease tempts them to remain within doors; the frequent tendency to urination further adds to their disinclination to go out. Under these circumstances they lose their appetites, do not sleep well, and become highly nervous, thus increasing their diabetic tendency. If they are required to go out and take exercise in the open air and rather long riding or walking periods every day, their general health will at once improve and the diabetes will become more manageable. I have seen this happen without exception even in patients well beyond middle age, and I am convinced that it is the diversion of mind as well as the salutary tiredness and thorough oxidation consequent upon outdoor exercise that is the best possible remedial measure for these cases.

Solicitude.—It is important that diabetic patients should not be bothered by frequent reports upon their urine. Their improvement and the reduction of the amount of sugar excreted is at best but slow, and is subject to many variations. While improvements, especially at the beginning, are sources of great encouragement, the deteriorations that are likely to be rather more frequent are prone to overweigh the good effects and eventual discouragement results. It is not from the urine but from the general condition that the improvement in the diabetic condition is to be judged. So long as the patient feels strong, gains in weight (when they do not belong to the obesity type of diabetes), the diabetes itself is almost sure to be improving, even though there may be discouraging periods as regards the amount of sugar eliminated.

Dangers of Rigid Diet.—There are more dangers in a rigid diet than in a certain amount of liberty in the consumption of starches and sugars. The craving for these becomes so strong as to make life intolerable to many people unless a certain amount of these substances is allowed. It is rather easy to manage limitation while it is almost impossible to be sure that patients will practice absolute denial. Besides, the almost complete absence of starches and sugars, even though their place is supplied by the fats, always seems to predispose patients to the development of the acid intoxication which results in the coma often so serious an incident of diabetes. It is for this reason particularly that mild diet regulations are clinically more judicious than the absolute denial which on chemical and physiological grounds seems to be the scientific ideal. A rather good therapeutic method is to have the patients maintain a rigid diet for some ten, fifteen or twenty days and then leave them practically without restrictions for the rest of the month. Continuous restriction of diet becomes appalling. Looking forward to a period when they can eat as other people do relieves the tedium, and makes it much easier to keep the restrictions. The mental influence of this moderate treatment is very favorable and encourages the patients in the thought that after all their disease is not so serious. This is the most important element in psychotherapy.

CHAPTER II

GRAVES' DISEASE

Graves' disease, sometimes called Basedow's disease, though the Irish physician has a right to the name by priority, is often called exophthalmic goitre, because this term is descriptive of the two most marked symptoms. It must not be forgotten, however, that there are cases in which there is no exophthalmos and even no goitre, at least no enlargement of the thyroid gland that can be demonstrated externally. It is said that in these cases there must be an enlargement of the thyroid bound down by fascia and concealed by other structures of the neck so that it does not appear externally. It is probable, however, that there are cases of true Graves' disease without enlargement of the thyroid yet with the characteristic tremor, rapid heart and the mental symptoms of the affection.

Etiology.—The symptoms of the affection often develop after a period of excitement or worry, or at critical times in life, if sorrow or misfortune proves a burden. Responsibility sometimes has a like effect. I have seen a woman patient on several occasions in the last fifteen years develop marked symptoms of Graves' disease when she was placed in a position of responsibility involving worry, while in the intervals when pursuing a simple ordinary life without trouble of mind no symptoms were present. Occasionally a fright seems to be at least a predisposing cause for the development of the symptoms. Emotional strains, mental stresses, play a large part in occasioning Graves' disease, though the cause of it is probably deeper in some structural defect. In recent years nearly all the medical attention has become concentrated on the idea that the disease is primarily due to hyperthyroidization. More detailed study, however, has shown that other ductless glands are probably also concerned in the etiology. The adrenals particularly seem to be associated closely with the thyroid and Graves' disease may be due to some disturbance of the co-ordination between these glandular systems. The thymus gland is usually persistent in these cases and this must represent something in the affection and at one time the use of thymus substance for therapeutic purposes seemed to confirm this idea. The parathyroids have also been called into question and their use in therapeusis seems to justify this to some extent, though probably we know too little about them to be able to say anything definite in the matter.

Even though the affection may be due directly to hypersecretion of the thyroid, it is possible that the mental and nervous state may be closely concerned in the etiology. Some patients have had an enlarged thyroid for years, without any symptoms of Graves' disease. Then during a time of stress and worry or anxiety and responsibility symptoms of the affection develop. The circulation of the thyroid is under the control of the cervical sympathetic. It is possible that this may be affected by states of mind to such an extent as to cause an increase of the circulation in the thyroid and as a consequence more of the thyroid secretion may get into the blood stream and produce its effect. Under these circumstances anything that would allay the excited mental condition and thus neutralize the unfavorable effect of the cervical sympathetic would cure or at least relieve Graves' disease.

The affection is about five times as frequent among women as it is among men. This has sometimes been attributed to the fact that there seems to be some more or less direct correlation between the sex organs in women and the ductless gland systems. It has often been pointed out that the thyroid is likely to be engorged at the time of menstruation and, indeed, there are those who have attributed some of the symptoms of tremulousness, irritability, and tiredness at this time to over-functioning of the gland. In women who have borne a child the thyroid is usually somewhat enlarged. Good authorities in obstetrics have insisted that they could pick out of a group of women in evening dress, those who had borne children, from the appearance of their necks. Probably this is an exaggeration, but there is no doubt that the thyroid is intimately related to the genital functions in women. It has been said that a direct connection could be traced between disappointments in love or in sexual matters and the development of Graves' disease. To put much stress on this would easily lead to mistaken conclusions, though it represents a principle that should be recalled in certain cases of the affection. The frequency with which slighter disturbances of the thyroid occur in connection with the common genital incidents of female life and their comparative insignificance for health or strength, should make for the holding of a not too serious prognosis in the affection.

Symptomatology.—There are four cardinal symptoms of the disease: rapid heart action, tremor, enlargement of the thyroid, and exophthalmos. At least two of these are largely dependent on mental influences. There are certain accompanying symptoms that are of importance and supposed to be connected directly with the disease, though oftener they can be traced to the influence of the state of the patient's mind upon the organism. Emaciation is common. It is due to the fact that the appetite is likely to be seriously disturbed by anxiety and solicitude. Anemia develops as a consequence and there may be slight fever which is sometimes inanition fever. Attacks of vomiting and diarrhea occur intermittently and sometimes there is constipation. The disturbance of eating consequent upon the affections seems largely responsible for these. The disturbance of the vascular system gives rise to flashes of heat and cold and often to profuse perspiration. Certain of the symptoms of the menopause can be compared rather strikingly with those of Graves' disease and have been attributed to the disturbance of the external secretion of the ovaries which are now known to act as ductless glands as well as genital organs.

With the exception of the enlargement of the thyroid and the exophthalmos, all of the symptoms of Graves' disease are of a kind that can be produced in states of excitement with nothing more present than a functional neurotic condition. It is true that the tremor is characteristic and differs from that of hysterical patients, being finer and at the rate of a little more than eight to the second. The rapid heart action, however, and the disturbance of the general circulation which causes flushing and pruritus and the sense of nervousness, as if the patients were in a constant state of fright, are always characteristically neurotic. The changes in disposition, often in the line of irritability, sometimes with severe mental depression, seem in many cases to be only a mental reaction to the patient's solicitude. The weakness of the limbs which sometimes amounts to a giving away of the legs, is connected with the tremor, but seems to be neurotic rather than of any more serious character. In spite of all our study of the affection its place among the neuroses must still be reserved for it, at least as regards many cases, and its treatment must be conducted with that idea in mind.

Diagnosis.—The disease is easy to recognize when fully developed. At the beginning of cases, however, and in certain abortive types of the affection which the French have called formes frustes, the diagnosis may be difficult. Usually the first symptom is tremor and this of itself will often serve, especially in association with general symptoms of nervousness, to make the diagnosis. Tremor with tachycardia puts the case beyond doubt, as a rule, though of course it must not be forgotten that hysteria may simulate rather closely this much of the disease.

The abortive types of the affection are important because they masquerade as forms of psychoneurosis, hysteria, and the like, though the patients are not suggestible, have very definite, not variable, symptoms and get better and worse according to the variations in the underlying affection. Occasionally they seem to be associated with certain other forms of neurotic conditions, especially those with vascular disturbances. There may be tinglings in the ends of the fingers, occasionally with suffusion, erythromelalgia—Weir Mitchell's disease—and even a tendency to the white "dead fingers" as the French call them, of Raynaud's disease. It seems not unlikely that further study will show that many of these affections involving disturbances of the vasomotor system are connected in some special way.