Век тревожности. Страхи, надежды, неврозы и поиски душевного покоя
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Кроме того, Лейбовиц разработал психодиагностическую шкалу для оценки уровня социальной тревожности пациента.
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До этого паксил был одобрен для лечения депрессии, обсессивно-компульсивного расстройства и генерализованного тревожного расстройства.
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Книга Лейна пополнила обширный массив литературы, обвиняющей фармацевтическую промышленность в выдумывании новых диагнозов ради прибыли. Подробнее я остановлюсь на этом в части третьей.
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Берк Э. Философское исследование о происхождении наших идей возвышенного и прекрасного. – М.: Искусство, 1979.
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По данным исследований, чужой пристальный взгляд вызывает сильное эмоциональное и физиологическое возбуждение. Самый верный способ вызвать нейронные выстрелы в миндалевидном теле испытуемого – попросту неотрывно смотреть на этого человека. Как демонстрируют многие исследования, миндалевидное тело страдающих тревожным социальным расстройством отличается более выраженной и постоянной реакцией на чужой взгляд, чем у здоровых испытуемых.
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Питер, надо полагать, никакой тревоги не испытывал. Годы спустя он стал членом кабинета министров во время первого президентского срока Барака Обамы.
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Ко всему прочему руководитель хора был человеком странным и деспотичным, жил с родителями и страшно заикался. Когда на репетициях он начинал на нас орать и спотыкался на каком-нибудь слове, лицо его искажала гримаса отчаяния и злости, и приходилось терпеливо ждать, пока он наконец выплюнет свое ругательство.
Комментарии
1
Статистика тревожности и расходов на охрану психического здоровья взята из доклада «Экономические последствия тревожных расстройств в 1990‑е гг.» (The Economic Burdens of Anxiety Disorders of the 1990s), опубликованного в The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 60, no. 7 (июль 1999).
2
Гарвардский эпидемиолог Рональд Кесслер изучает этот вопрос не первое десятилетие. См., например, его статью Lifetime Prevalence and Age-of-Onset Distributions of DSM – IV Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication // Archives of General Psychiatry 62, no. 6 (июнь 2005): 593–602.
3
R. C. Kessler et al., «Prevalence and Effects of Mood Disorders on Work Performance in a Nationally Representative Sample of U. S. Workers," The American Journal of Psychiatry 163 (2006): 1561–68. См. также "Economic Burdens".
4
Статистическое управление Министерства труда США, "Table R67: Number and Percent Distribution of Nonfatal Occupational Injuries and Illnesses Involving Days Away from Work by Nature of Injury or Illness and Number of Days Away from Work, 2001."
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Drug Topics, March 2006.
6
"Taking the Worry Cure," Newsweek, February 24, 2003. См. также Restak, Poe's Heart, 185.
7
Отчет информационной компании Wolters Kluwer Health, Цит. по: Restak, Poe's Heart, 185.
8
Mental Health Foundation, In the Face of Fear, April 2009, 3–5.
9
"Prevalence, Severity, and Unmet Need for Treatment of Mental Disorders in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys," The Journal of the American Medical Association 291 (June 2004): 2581–90.
10
"Prevalence and Incidence Studies of Anxiety Disorders: A Systematic Review of the Literature," The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 51 (2006): 100–13.
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Например, "Global Prevalence of Anxiety Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-regression," Psychological Medicine 10 (July 2012): 1–14.
12
См., напр.: "Content of Family Practice: A Data Bank for Patient Care, Curriculum, and Research in Family Practice – 526, 196 Patient Problems," The Journal of Family Practice 3 (1976): 25–68.
13
"The Hidden Mental Health Network: Treatment of Mental Illness by Non-psychiatric Physicians," Archives of General Psychiatry 42 (1985): 89–94.
14
"Panic Disorder: Epidemiology and Primary Care," The Journal of Family Practice 23 (1986): 233–39.
15
"Quality of Care of Psychotropic Drug Use in Internal Medicine Group Practices," Western Journal of Medicine 14 (1986): 710–14.
16
См., напр.: Peter D. Kramer, "Tapping the Mood Gene," The New York Times, July 26, 2003. См. также Restak, Poe's Heart, 204–12.
17
Thomas Insel, "Heeding Anxiety's Call" (lecture, May 19, 2005).
18
Roccatagliata, History of Ancient Psychiatry, 38.
19
Maurice Charlton, "Psychiatry and Ancient Medicine," in Historical Derivations of Modern Psychiatry, 16.
20
Charlton, "Psychiatry and Ancient Medicine," 12.
21
Cм., напр.: Rachel Yehuda et al., "Transgenerational Effects of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Babies of Mothers Exposed to the World Trade Center Attacks During Pregnancy," The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolisim 90, no. 7 (July 2005): 4115 Rachel Yehuda et al., "Gene Expression Patterns Associated with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Following Exposure to the World Trade Center Attacks," Biological Psychiatry 66 (7) (2009): 708–11.
22
Цит. по: Hunt, Story of Psychology, 72.
23
См., напр.: "The Relationship Between Intelligence and Anxiety: An Association with Subcortical White Matter Metabolism," Frontiers in Evolutionary Neuroscience 3, no. 8 (февраль 2012). (Также о высоком IQ у евреев: Стивен Пинкер в лекции 2007 г. «Евреи, гены и интеллект» называет «средние показатели их IQ от 108 до 115». Ричард Линн, автор статьи 2004 г. «Интеллект американских евреев» ("The Intelligence of American Jews"), сообщает, что среднеквадратическое отклонение баллов IQ у евреев в два раза выше, чем в среднем у европейцев. В докладе 2005 г. по результатам исследования Natural History of Ashkenazi Intelligence Генри Харпердинг, Джейсон Харди и Грегори Кохран из Университета Юты утверждают, что их испытуемые «набирают от 0, 75 до 1 доли среднеквадратического отклонения выше среднеевропейских показателей, что соответствует IQ 112–115».
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"The Relation of Strength of Stimulus to Rapidity of Habit-Formation," The Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology 18 (1908): 459–82.
25
Los Angeles Examiner, November 4, 1957, цитируется по Tone, Age of Anxiety, 87.
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Los Angeles Examiner, March 23, 1958, цитируется по Tone, Age of Anxiety, 87.
27
Barlow, Anxiety and Its Disorders, 9.
28
Steve Coll, "The General's Dilemma," The New Yorker, September 8, 2008.
29
Lifton, Protean Self, 101.
30
Niebuhr, Nature and Destiny, vol. I, 182.
31
Hoch and Zubin, Anxiety, v.
32
Theodore R. Sarbin, "Anxiety: Reification of a Metaphor," Archives of General Psychiatry 10 (1964): 630–38.
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Kagan, What is Emotion?, 41.
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См., напр.: "Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality," in Freud, Basic Writings.
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Freud, Problem of Anxiety, 60.
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См., напр.: R. Spitzer and J. Fleiss, "A Re-analysis of the Reliability of Psychiatric Diagnosis," The British Journal of Psychiatry 125 (1974): 341–47; Stuart A. Kirk and Herb Kutchins, "The Myth of the Reliability of DSM," Journal of Mind and Behavior 15, nos. 1–2 (1994): 71–86.
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Burton, Anatomy, 261.
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Breggin, Medication Madness, 331.
39
Kagan, What Is Emotion?, 83.
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См., напр.: "Fear and the Amygdala," The Journal of Neuroscience 15, no. 9 (September 1995): 5879–91.
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Cannon, Bodily Changes, 74.
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James, Principles of Psychology, 415.
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LeDoux, Emotional Brain, 107.
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Из исследования Эрика Кандела, описанного в Barber, Comfortably Numb, 191–96.
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Kagan, What is Emotion?, 17.
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Barlow, Anxiety and Its Disorders, 35.
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Sapolsky, Zebras, 182.
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Цит. по: Stephen Hall, "Fear Itself," The New York Times Magazine, February 28, 1999.
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Gray and McNaughton, Neuropsychology of Anxiety, 12.
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G. Desbordes et al., "Effects of Mindful-Attention and Compassion Meditation Training on Amygdala Response to Emotional Stimuli in an Ordinary, Non-meditative State," Frontiers of Human Neuroscience 6 (2012): 292.
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См., напр.: Richard J. Davidson and Antoine Lutz, "Buddha's Brain: Neuroplasticity and Meditation," IEEE Signal Processing Magazine 25, no. I (January 2008): 174–76.
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Richard A. Friedman, "Like Drugs, Talk Therapy Can Change Brain Chemistry," The New York Times, August 27, 2002.
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Tillich, "Existential Philosophy," Journal of the History of Ideas 5, no. I (1944): 44–70. (Впоследствии упоминается в книге Тиллиха 1959 г. «Богословие культуры», Theology of Culture.)
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См., напр.: Gabbard, "A Neurobiologically Informed Perspective on Psychotherapy," The British Journal of Psychiatry 177 (2000): 11; A. Ohman and J. J. F. Soares, "Unconscious Anxiety: Phobic Responses to Masked Stimuli," Journal of Abnormal Psychology (1994); John T. Cacioppo et. al., "The Psychophysiology of Emotion," Handbook of Emotions 2 (2000): 173–91.
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Shawn, Wish, 10.
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David Barlow "Providing Best Treatments for Patients with Panic Disorder," Anxiety and Depression Association of American Annual Conference, Miami, March 24, 2006.
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Lauren Slater, "The Cruelest Cure," The New York Times, November 2, 2003.
58
J. K. Ritow, "Brief Treatment of a Vomiting Phobia," American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 21, no. 4 (1979): 293–96.
59
Northfield, Conquest of Nerves, 37.
60
Harvard Medical School, Sensitive Gut, 71.
61
Ibid., 72.
62
William E. Whitehead et al., "Tolerance for Rectosigmoid Distention in Irritable Bowel Syndrome," Gastroenterology 98, no. 5 (1990): 1187; William E. Whitehead, Bernard T. Engel, and Marvin M. Schuster, "Irritable Bowel Syndrome," Digestive Diseases and Sciences 25, no. 6 (1980): 404–13.
63
Ingvard Wilhelmsen. "Brain-Gut Axis as an Example of the Bio-psycho-social Model," Gut 47, supp. 4 (2000): 5–7.
64
Walter Cannon, "The Influence of Emotional States on the Functions of the Alimentary Canal," The American Journal of the Medical Sciences 137, no. 4 (April 1909): 480–86.
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Andrew Fullwood and Douglas A. Drossman, "The Relationship of Psychiatric Illness with Gastrointestinal Disease," Annual Review of Medicine 46, no. 1 (1995): 483–96.
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Robert G. Maunder, "Panic Disorder Associated with Gastrointestinal Disease: Review and Hypotheses," Journal of Psychosomatic Research 44, no. 1 (1998): 91.
67
Цит. по: Roccatagliata, History of Ancient Psychiatry, 106.
68
Цит. по: Sarason and Spielberger, Stress and Anxiety, vol. 2, 12.
69
Wolf and Wolff, Human Gastric Function, 112.
70
Alvarez, Nervousness, 123.
71
Ibid., 266.
72
Angela L. Davidson, Christopher Boyle, and Fraser Lauchlan, "Scared to Lose Control? General and Health Locus of Control in Females with a Phobia of Vomiting," Journal of Clinical Psychology 64, no. 1 (2008): 30–39.
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Цит. по: Desmond and Moore, Darwin, 531.
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Цитируется в Colp, To Be an Invalid, 43–53.
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Desmond and Moore, Darwin, 530.
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Цит. по: Colp, To Be an Invalid, 84.
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Anthony K. Campbell and Stephanie B. Matthews, "Darwin's Illness Revealed," Postgraduate Medical Journal 81, no. 954 (2005): 248–51.
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Bowlby, Charles Darwin, 229.
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Thomas J. Barloon and Russell Noyes Jr., "Charles Darwin and Panic Disorder," The Journal of the American Medical Association 277, no. 2 (1997): 138–41.
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Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, vol. 1, 349.
81
Quammen, Reluctant Mr. Darwin, 62.
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Источники: Bowlby, Charles Darwin; Colp, To Be an Invalid; Desmond and Moore, Darwin; Browne, The Power of Place; and Quammen, The Reluctant Mr. Darwin; и др.
83
Bowlby, Charles Darwin, 300.
84
Ibid., 335.
85
Ibid., 343.
86
Ibid., 375.
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Desmond and Moore, Darwin, 358.
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Bowlby, Charles Darwin, 282.
89
Oppenheim, "Shattered Nerves," 114.
90
Davenport-Hines, Pursuit of Oblivion, 56.
91
Цит. по: Marshall, Social Phobia, 140.
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"Memoir of William Cowper," Procedings of the American Philosophical Society 97, no. 4 (1953): 359–82.
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Gandhi, Autobiography. На этот источник меня навела глава пятая книги Тейлора Кларка «Нерв» (Nerve).
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Все упоминания о Джефферсоне взяты из книги Джошуа Кендалла «Американская одержимость» (American Obsessives, 21).
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Mohr, Gasping for Airtime, 134.
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"Hugh Grant: Behind That Smile Lurks a Deadly Serious Film Star," USA Today, December 17, 2009.
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"A Gloom of Her Own," The New York Times Magazine, November 21, 2004.
98
Casper, Johann Ludwig, "Biographie d'une idée fixe" (translated into French, 1902), Archives de Neurologie, 13, 270–287.
99
Burgess, Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing, 49.
100
Hartenberg, Les timides et la timidite (Felix Alcon, 1901).
101
Ken-Ichiro Okano, "Shame and Social Phobia: A Transcultural Viewpoint," Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic 58, no. 3 (1994): 323–38.
102
Michael Liebowitz et al., "Social Phobia," Archives of General Psychiatry 42, no. 7 (1985): 729–36.
103
"Disorders Made to Order," Mother Jones, July/August 2002.
104
Manjula et al., "Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia) – a Review," International Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology 2, no. 2 (2012): 55–59.
105
Davidson et al., "While a Phobic Waits: Regional Brain Electrical and Autonomic Activity in Social Phobias During Anticipation of Public Speaking," Biological Psychiatry 47 (2000): 85–95.