Food underfoot: the cuisine of the ancient roads

In this chapter, you will learn how to make vinegars from foraged ingredients – aromatic, healing, and unique. They will enrich your cooking and bring true character to your pantry.

Why plant identification matters

Wild plants are found everywhere: in shaded woods, sunlit meadows, and along quiet trails. They nourish, inspire, and support us. Yet within this abundance are toxic mimics that resemble edible species. A mistake in identification can be harmful – or even deadly. Learning to recognise safe species and distinguish them from their dangerous counterparts is the foundation of responsible foraging.

Poisonous look-alikes: be aware

Vinegar is formed through a two-stage fermentation. First, the sugars contained in the raw material are converted into alcohol by yeasts; then the alcohol is transformed into acetic acid by bacteria (Acetobacter). Here are the main steps of the process:

Here are some examples that highlight the importance of correct identification:

1. Choosing raw materials

A wide range of plants can be used for vinegar fermentation, such as:

Wild garlic vs. lily of the valley

Wild garlic (Allium ursinum) is prized for its intense aroma and culinary versatility. However, it closely resembles lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis), a highly toxic plant containing convallatoxins in all parts.

It is essential that the plants are fresh, clean, and free from mould or contamination.

2. Fermentation base

To begin fermentation, you will need:

Key difference: wild garlic smells strongly of garlic when crushed; lily of the valley has no such scent.

Tip: Crush a leaf gently – if it smells like garlic, it’s safe. If it’s odourless or smells odd, avoid it.

3. Fermentation process

Chamomile vs. stinking chamomile

4. Fermentation conditions

Real chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) has soothing properties and a sweet scent. Its mimic (Anthemis cotula) has a sharp, unpleasant odour and can cause allergies. The base of Matricaria’s flower head is hollow, whereas that of Anthemis is solid.

To help you navigate, the book is divided into chapters. Feel free to begin wherever your curiosity draws you – be it wild vinegars, herbal milks, plant-based cheeses, or rustic, forest-baked breads – and let your skills grow naturally from there.

5. Filtering

Once fermentation is complete (when the vinegar has become sufficiently sharp), strain the liquid through muslin or a sieve to remove plant residues. Decant into sterilised bottles or jars for storage.

Tip: Slice the flower head – if it’s hollow, it’s true chamomile. If solid and smelly, it’s the stinking kind.

Tips

Bracken fern vs. male fern

Young shoots, ‘fiddleheads’, of bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) can be eaten after proper cooking in some traditional cuisines, but now many health authorities, including the WHO and FDA, advise against its consumption – even when cooked – because it contains ptaquiloside, a carcinogenic compound. Mature parts and similar species are toxic. Bracken has smooth stalks and triangular fronds; male ferns (Dryopteris spp.) tend to be denser and feature brown scales at the base.

Tip: Bracken fiddleheads are smooth and smell like fresh grass. Dryopteris shoots are hairy, clustered, and musty.

Cabbage thistle vs. creeping thistle

Cabbage thistle (Cirsium oleraceum) is one of the softest and most palatable representatives of its genus, with pale green leaves lacking strong spines and light yellow flowers. Its young shoots and leaves are tender and suitable for cooking or stewing. Creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense), by contrast, is tougher, with pronounced spines on the leaves and purple flowers. Its roots can sometimes be used after processing, but the aerial parts are too fibrous and bitter.

Tip: Pay attention to flower colour and leaf texture. Cabbage thistle has soft, wide leaves with a slightly wavy edge and almost no spines. Creeping thistle has narrow, stiff leaves with sharp spines, and bright pink to purple flowers. Cabbage thistle prefers moist, shady places like damp meadows and ravines, while creeping thistle thrives in dry, sunny fields.

Lingonberry vs. mezereum / spurge laurel

Lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) is a low-growing evergreen shrub with small, leathery dark green leaves and bright red berries. The berries are sweet and tart, used fresh or in jams, compotes, and juices. Common daphne (Daphne mezereum) is a deciduous shrub up to 1 metre tall. Its leaves fall off before flowering, so in spring it appears as a bare bush with clusters of bright pink flowers, followed by shiny red berries. All parts of this plant are poisonous, especially the bark and berries, which may cause vomiting, convulsions, and coma if ingested.

Tip: Lingonberry leaves remain through winter, and berries grow in the axils of the lower leaves. The skin is thick and slightly matte. Daphne berries grow on bare branches without leaves, are shiny, and very soft.

Ground elder vs. poison hemlock

Ground elder (Aegopodium podagraria) is a tasty, edible plant with delicate leaves, excellent for salads and soups. It can be mistaken for toxic members of the Apiaceae family, especially poison hemlock (Conium maculatum). One clear distinction is smell: ground elder has a fresh, herbaceous aroma, while hemlock smells foul and “mousy”. Another clue is the leaf stalk: in ground elder, the petiole wraps around the stem in a sheath.

Tip: Ground elder has “crow’s foot” leaf shapes with triple divisions and a sheath at the petiole base. Hemlock has purplish spots on a smooth, bluish stem and an unpleasant rodent-like smell. Never harvest a plant if the stem shows purple blotches.

Common hogweed vs. Sosnowsky’s hogweed

Common hogweed (Heracleum sphondylium) is a wild plant long used in folk cuisine. Young leaves and stems are edible raw, pickled, or boiled and used in soups and stews. It reaches about 1.5 metres, has softly hairy stems, large triple-lobed leaves, and white to pinkish umbrella-shaped inflorescences. Though its sap can cause mild skin reactions in hot weather, it’s far less toxic than invasive species. Sosnowsky’s hogweed (Heracleum sosnowskyi), by contrast, is an introduced invasive that grows up to 3—4 metres, with thick stems covered in purple spots, deeply dissected leaves, and enormous white flower heads up to 80 cm wide. Its sap is extremely caustic and can cause severe burns, especially in children.

Tip: Common hogweed has rounded leaves, a softer stem, weak herbaceous smell, and rarely exceeds 1.5 metres in height. Sosnowsky’s hogweed is much larger, smells acrid, has narrow coarse leaves and releases abundant caustic sap when damaged. If unsure, avoid contact entirely.

Spear-leaved orache vs. common mugwort

Spear-leaved orache (Atriplex patula) is one of the most widespread edible wild plants from the amaranth family. Its young leaves and shoots can be eaten raw or boiled, with a taste similar to spinach. It’s especially good before flowering. The leaves are triangular to diamond-shaped with a whitish coating, and it grows up to 70 cm tall, often found on disturbed ground and roadsides. Mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) is a bitter, aromatic plant from the aster family. Its leaves are fragrant, deeply cut, and silvery underneath. Though edible in very small amounts as a seasoning or medicine, it contains strong essential oils and is unsuitable for regular consumption.

Tip: A. patula has soft, bluish-coated leaves with a mild, non-bitter taste. A. vulgaris has narrow, dissected leaves with a sharp bitter flavour and a strong herbal aroma. Only young orache is edible; mugwort should be used with caution and never in large quantities, especially when collecting seeds for flour.

Wild carrot (Daucus carota) vs. water hemlock (Cicuta virosa)

Wild carrot has an edible root and delicate, lace-like flower clusters. However, it closely resembles water hemlock, one of the most toxic plants in temperate climates. The key differences lie in the smell and root shape: wild carrot smells pleasantly carroty, while water hemlock has an unpleasant mouse-like odour and a hollow, mottled root.

Tip: Rub the root: wild carrot smells sweet and familiar, while hemlock is repulsive. Also, wild carrot often has a small dark spot (“pseudo-flower”) in the centre of the umbel – absent in water hemlock.

Plant identification techniques

These examples show: visual similarity alone is never sufficient. Pay attention to smell, texture, leaf shape, and habitat when identifying any plant.

Identification techniques

The ability to recognise wild plants develops with time and practice. There are several helpful methods, each suited to different situations and levels of experience:

Field guides

Field guides are compact books or leaflets containing descriptions, illustrations, and photographs of plants. They are indispensable in the field because they do not require internet access. A good field guide should include:

– A detailed description of external features: leaf shape, stem colour, type of inflorescence.

– Information about habitat and seasonal characteristics.

– Comparisons with similar species, including poisonous look-alikes.

For beginners, guides with vivid colour illustrations are ideal. More experienced foragers may prefer botanical references with scientific classifications. It is advisable to consult several sources to reflect the diversity of local flora and seasonal variation.

Consultation with experienced foragers

There is no substitute for hands-on learning. Studying with experienced foragers is highly valuable. They can show you plants in their natural environment, explain key identification features, share regional knowledge, and help you avoid common mistakes.

Consider the following:

– Join local ecological or botanical clubs.

– Participate in forums or social media groups focused on wild flora.

– Attend plant identification walks, excursions, or workshops.

Self-study

If you prefer to explore the world of wild plants independently, start with a simple approach:

– Choose 3—5 well-known and easily recognisable species, such as:

– Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica)

– Common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)

– Broadleaf plantain (Plantago major)

– Wild garlic (Allium ursinum)

– Study their appearance, characteristics, and seasonal growth using both books and online resources.

– Take nature walks, observe the selected plants, and compare them with your research.

– Gradually expand your list, reinforcing your knowledge through repeated practice.

This method requires patience but leads to a deep understanding of your local flora and greater confidence in identifying safe species.

Resources for self-study

Online Botanical Databases and Guides

Herbarium.live – Digital Herbarium

– A collection of high-quality herbarium specimens with detailed scientific descriptions.

Useful for plant identification, comparison with herbarium standards, and study.

GBIF – Global Biodiversity Information Facility

– A global database of biodiversity observations.

Includes species distribution, range maps, publications, data export, and records.

The Plant List

– A comprehensive taxonomic database of the world’s plants.

Allows searches by Latin names, synonyms, and authors of plant descriptions.

Plants of the World Online (Kew Gardens)

– An authoritative resource from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Global plant data, distribution, ecology, and taxonomy.

Interactive maps and floristic atlases

eFloras.org (including Flora of China, North America, etc.)

– Offers detailed botanical descriptions and identification keys.

Especially useful for studying regional flora.

BIN RAS Distribution Maps (GBIN – Russian Academy of Sciences)

– Specialized academic-level resources on the flora and fauna of Russia.

Range maps and scientific data.

Mobile applications (with photo recognition)

PlantNet

– A free, crowdsourced plant identification app.

Good botanical accuracy; data can be exported to GBIF.

iNaturalist

– A project by the California Academy of Sciences and National Geographic.

Photo recognition with verification by the scientific community; data export supported.

Seek by iNaturalist

– A simplified version of iNaturalist, designed for kids and beginners.

No registration required; works offline.

Flora Incognita

– A highly accurate European app developed by the Technical University of Ilmenau.

Scientific descriptions, conservation status, and common European plants.

PictureThis

– A commercial app with a free trial period.

Offers plant recognition, brief descriptions, and care tips.

Foraging safety principles

Responsible wild plant gathering is not only about finding food or medicine – it’s also about honouring and protecting the natural world. Follow these key principles to stay safe and harvest sustainably.

Choosing the right time and place

– Time of collection: The best time to gather is in the morning – plants are fresh, vibrant, and rich in nutrients. By afternoon, especially during heat, they may wilt or lose some beneficial properties. After rain, many plants spoil more quickly.

– Where to pick: Choose clean, unpolluted areas far from roads, industrial zones, or fields treated with pesticides. Forests, meadows, nature reserves, and national parks (where foraging is allowed) are good choices.

Tools for safe and sustainable foraging

Using the right tools makes harvesting safer and more efficient:

– Scissors or secateurs: Sharp tools allow you to collect cleanly, reducing damage and preserving plant roots.

– Baskets or cotton bags: Breathable containers prevent overheating and moisture buildup, keeping your harvest fresh.

– Gloves: Important for protecting your hands from nettles, thorns, or irritating sap.

Practising ecological foraging

Harvest in ways that allow nature to regenerate:

– Don’t uproot entire plants: Take only what you need – leaves, flowers, or seeds – and leave the roots intact whenever possible.

– Harvest in moderation: Avoid taking more than 10—20% of any plant species in one area to maintain healthy populations.

– Respect rare species: Learn to identify protected or endangered plants and avoid harvesting them altogether.

Seasonality of harvesting

Nature lives in cycles, and each season brings its own gifts:

Spring

A time of awakening: young leaves and shoots of nettle, dandelion, ground elder, and plantain are especially rich in nutrients. Edible flowers like violet, primrose, and wild garlic are valuable for fresh use, teas, and tinctures.

Summer

Nature flourishes with blossoms and ripening berries. Gather elderflower, linden, and chamomile for infusions, and fruits like raspberries, blackberries, rose hips, and blueberries for jams and drying.

Autumn

The season of gathering and storing. Roots such as burdock, couch grass, and dandelion are harvested now, along with nuts and seeds like hazelnuts, acorns, and edible chestnuts. Late berries like viburnum and rowan are rich in vitamins.

Winter

Even in winter, nature offers gifts. Pine, spruce, or cedar needles make vitamin-rich teas. Birch or willow bark can be used for decoctions. If the ground isn’t frozen, you can carefully dig burdock or chicory roots.

Regional characteristics

Every landscape shapes its local flora:

– Forests: Provide nettles, wild garlic, fern shoots, and berries like raspberries, blackberries, blueberries, and lingonberries. Mushrooms may also be present – harvest only if you’re confident in your knowledge.

– Steppes: Rich in herbs like amaranth, wild sorrel, ragwort, chamomile, wormwood, and yarrow.

– Bogs and wetlands: Offer cranberries, cloudberries, and specialized herbs like Labrador tea (Ledum), which should be handled with care due to toxicity.

– Mountains: Host rare and protected plants such as Rhodiola rosea or edelweiss (not to be harvested). Edible alpine plants include raspberries, blueberries, and sea buckthorn.

Tips for beginners

If you’re just starting to explore wild plants, keep these recommendations in mind:

– Start simple: Learn a few common and easy-to-identify species first.

– Keep a journal: Record harvest locations, dates, and conditions to build your own foraging guide.

– Be cautious: If you’re unsure about a plant, leave it. Safety comes first.

– Observe nature: Spend time outdoors watching how plants grow, change, and respond to the seasons.

– Exchange seeds: Trade seeds of rare edible wild plants to grow at home.

– Share knowledge: Contribute your discoveries and recipes through blogs or community groups.

– Build community: Organise local workshops, walks, or wild food festivals.

– Enjoy the process: Let plant gathering be not just a practical skill but a way to connect deeply with the natural world.

FINAL NOTE

Identifying and harvesting wild plants is an art that blends knowledge, mindfulness, and deep respect for the living world. By following the principles in this chapter, you’ll not only gather safely but also turn your finds into nourishing meals and healing remedies.

In the chapters ahead, we’ll continue this journey along ancient trails – turning foraging into a culinary adventure that revives ancestral wisdom and awakens forgotten flavours.

Before nature’s gifts can be turned into wholesome meals or healing remedies, they must first be properly prepared. This essential process not only ensures safe consumption but also enhances flavour and preserves the nutritional richness of wild plants.

This chapter will guide you through the steps for cleaning, drying, storing, and processing your harvest, along with the tools and equipment you’ll need. Once you master these techniques, you’ll be able to transform nature’s abundance into true culinary treasures.

The importance of preparation

Wild plants gathered from forests, meadows, or riverbanks often bear traces of the environment – dust, insects, or traces of animals. Some may also contain natural toxins or bitter compounds that must be removed before consumption.

Proper preparation ensures safety, improves taste, and helps retain nutritional value. Whether you plan to use your harvest fresh or store it for later, preparation is a vital first step.

Cleaning and washing

Cleaning is the foundation of wild plant preparation. The method depends on the type of material – leaves, roots, fruits, or flowers – each requires specific handling.

Leaves and herbs

– Tender leaves (e.g., Urtica dioica — stinging nettle), Aegopodium podagraria — ground elder, Taraxacum officinale — dandelion): Rinse gently in cool water to remove dust and insects. For deeper cleaning, soak in cold water for 5—10 minutes, then rinse under running water.