Holy waters of the ancestral homeland of mankind
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The modern population of Europe is the result of a mixture of lineages or haplogroups: R1a, I1, I2, and R1b. R1b carriers dominate in Western Europe, while R1a carriers dominate in the East, particularly in Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine. In Africa, haplogroup R1b is found in isolation among the indigenous populations of the Lake Chad region. This branch migrated to the continent from Eurasia in prehistoric times and differs from European subclades.
In the Americas, haplogroup R1b is found in isolation among indigenous populations of Algonquian tribes, including the Ojibwe (79%), Chipewyan (62%), Seminole, Sioux, and Cherokee. A special analysis showed that the R1b found in North American groups is not a direct modern European trait.
B.V. Gornung believes that the original territory of the Indo-European linguistic community in the late 4th - early 3rd millennium BC included most of the northern Balkan Peninsula, the Middle Danube basin to the Carpathians east of the Tisza and to the Tatra Mountains, as well as the area of the archaeological Trypillian culture.
The Anatolian group was the first to emerge from this community, expanding into Asia Minor. At the end of the 3rd millennium BC, a northward expansion occurred (the Globular Amphora culture). At the same time, a group emerged, represented by the Middle Dnieper, Fatyanovo, and Komarovo cultures (the last purely Slavic). At the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, a "breakaway" occurred from the southeastern group (the Late Yamna and Catacomb cultures, interacting with the Trypillian and Poltavka cultures). According to B.V. Gornung, the Western European variants of the Corded Ware and Battle Axe cultures gave rise to the Proto-Illyrian (Unetice and Pre-Luzatian cultures), Proto-Celtic, and Proto-Italo-Germanic dialect groups. At the same time, Indo-Europeans settled in Greece (the Middle Helladic culture), and the Proto-Slavic group formed in Ukraine.
6.
It is believed that the Trypillian culture formed the basis for the Usatov culture (considered a late variant of the Trypillian culture itself) and the Middle Dnieper culture.
The Usatov culture (3900-2500 BC or 3100-2500 BC) was located on the northwestern coast of the Black Sea between the mouths of the Bug and Danube rivers. It is usually considered a single cultural and historical community with the Coțofeni (3500-2500 BC) and Foltești (3500-2500 BC) cultures, which occupied most of Romania, Serbia, and Bulgaria.
Radiocarbon dates for the Usatov culture, after correction for the reservoir effect, are approximately 3700-2800 BC.
It is believed that the Usatovo culture resulted from the migration of the Sredny Stog culture to the lands of the Trypillian culture, interacting with migrants of the Varna-Karanovo-Gumelnitsa culture, who fled the flood from the western coast of the Black Sea. The Varna-Karanovo-Gumelnitsa migration and the expansion of Trypillia occurred between 4200 and 3900 BC, although other datings place this event as early as 3100 BC. The fusion of these three elements created the Usatovo culture, which spread along the northwestern Black Sea coast.
The main economic activity of the Usatovo culture in Ukraine was livestock breeding. They raised sheep (63% of the herd), cattle, and horses.
The location of Usatovo culture settlements on the seashore facilitated fishing: many catfish and sturgeon bones have been found.
They produced tools, weapons, and jewelry made of copper and silver. Glass beads, along with finds near Kiev and beads from the Moldovan village of Ketroshika, are the oldest glass in Eurasia. The Usatovo people conducted extensive trade with the Caucasus, the Mediterranean, and Egypt.
Based on autosomal genes, Usatovo culture bearers are 43% descended from the ancient steppe population of the Stavropol Krai, 5% from Caucasian farmers, and 52% from the Trypillian culture.
The Y-chromosomal haplogroups E1b, R1a, and J1 have been identified in the Usatovo culture. Mitochondrial haplogroups T2h2, X2d, U5a1, W1, H+195, and U4d3 have been identified.
The Usatovo culture is considered Indo-European. Traditionally, it is considered part of the Balkan-Danubian cultural complex, which stretched from Troy to the Danube Valley.
7.
More controversial is the relationship between the Trypillian groups and the Corded Ware tribes and their role in the genesis of these cultures, particularly the Middle Dnieper culture.
The Middle Dnieper Corded Ware culture (26th-15th centuries BC) was located in the Middle Dnieper region (Belarus, southwestern European Russia, and northern Ukraine). The earliest settlements have been identified in the Kyiv and Cherkasy regions. The development of the Middle Dnieper culture ceased with the emergence of the Sosnitsa culture (a variant of the purely Slavic culture) in its territory.
The population engaged in livestock breeding, agriculture, hunting, and fishing. The Zhilo people manufactured flint, stone, and bronze tools and weapons, metal, bone, and amber jewelry, and ceramic pottery. They traded with the Caucasus, from which they obtained bronze items and metal. There are finds of Egyptian faience multi-segment beads and bronze willow-leaf pendants (18th-15th centuries BC).
The Middle Dnieper culture is represented by settlements in 209 locations in the Middle and Upper Dnieper regions. The settlements cover less than one hectare. The remains of above-ground dwellings with pillar structures and hearth pits or stone hearths inside have been discovered at these settlements.
The stages of development of the Middle Dnieper culture allow us to determine the region of its formation (the right bank of the Middle Dnieper region) and trace the settlement of the Middle Dnieper tribes.
Initially, the Middle Dnieper tribes advanced from the right bank of the Middle Dnieper region northward and to the left bank, into the territory of the late Trypillian tribes of the Sofievka group, then along the banks of the Desna, Lower Pripyat, and Sozh rivers. Sites from the middle period are known throughout the Middle and Upper Dnieper region. During the late period, the territory of the Middle Dnieper tribes expanded further. Settlements appeared on the banks of the Seim, in the upper reaches of the Oka River, on the left bank of the Western Dvina in the Vitebsk region, in the upper reaches of the Neman, and in the Minsk region.
There are various hypotheses regarding the origins of the Middle Dnieper culture. According to researchers, the origins of the Middle Dnieper culture should be sought in the northern regions of the Middle Dnieper region, based on the Yamnaya culture. Its subsequent development occurred in interaction with the Catacomb and Volyn cultures, as well as the Late Trypillia culture.
Researchers believe that several local cultures contributed to the development of the Middle Dnieper culture: the Dnieper-Donets, Ancient Yamnaya, Sredny Stog, and Trypillia cultures. Similarities are evident in the forms and ornamentation of Middle Dnieper pottery with Trypillia pottery.
A. Ya. Bryusov links the origins of all "Corded Ware and Battle Axe cultures" to the Catacomb culture. Most researchers believe that the Corded Ware cultures had nothing in common with the late Neolithic cultures of the Volga-Oka basin, the Upper Dnieper region, the Eastern Baltic, southern Scandinavia, and Central Europe. The Corded Ware tribes arrived in these areas as newcomers, settling among the local populations.
The anthropological composition of the Corded Ware population is heterogeneous. Mediterranean, Paleo-European, Lappish, Armenoid, and Nordic anthropological types have been identified. This indicates a complex process of formation of the Corded Ware cultures.
The origins of the Corded Ware cultures are sought in regions of Ukraine formerly occupied by the Trypillian culture, in areas adjacent to the northern coast of the Black Sea, in the area between the Dnieper and Vistula rivers, and in the forest-steppe zone of Right-Bank Ukraine.
Many researchers note the significant role of the Middle Dnieper culture in the ancient history of the forest belt of Eastern Europe. The Middle Dnieper culture contributed to the formation of the Vistula-Neman, Estonian, and Fatyanovo cultures.
From the upper Dnieper, the Middle Dnieper culture spread west and northwest to the Baltic region, north to the Ilmen region, and east to the Volga-Klyazma interfluve. Early sites of the Klyazma group of the Fatyanovo culture (24th-18th centuries BC) contain vessels similar to those of the Middle Dnieper culture, indicating the synchronicity of these cultures and the participation of the Middle Dnieper culture in the development of the Fatyanovo culture.
The Middle Dnieper culture contributed to the development of the Vistula-Neman and Boat Axe cultures of the eastern Baltic region. The Middle Dnieper tribes coexisted with the Upper Dnieper (Rohachev) and Pit-Comb Ware cultures.
P.N. Tretyakov notes that "the significance of the Middle Dnieper tribes in the ethnogeny of the Eastern European forest belt tribes lies not only in the fact that over the course of several centuries they conquered vast expanses of the Upper and partly Middle Dnieper region, but also in the fact that the subsequent history of this region is the history, first and foremost, of their direct descendants."
The Middle Dnieper culture formed the basis for the development of the Bronze Age Sosnitsa culture, which occupied the same territory in the Dnieper region as the preceding Middle Dnieper culture from the second half of the 2nd to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC.
2. Saraswati. Goddess
1.
The widespread story in Vedic literature about the discovery of the lost Vedas on the banks of the Sarasvati River is of exceptional scientific interest.
Despite the importance of the Sarasvati River, it is absent from India. Nor is it sought in the ancestral homeland of the Indo-Aryans, Eastern Europe.
Sarasvati is both the goddess of speech and a river. In Slavic languages, the words "rech" (speech) and "rechenka" (a babbling river) have the same root. Therefore, it is believed that the Sarasvati River is a representation of the Milky Way, and the Vedas were directly given by the goddess of knowledge and speech.
Sarasvati is the goddess of wisdom, knowledge, art, beauty, and eloquence. She possesses the nature of complete knowledge. She is credited with the invention of the sacred language, Sanskrit, and writing. Sarasvati is considered one of the five highest manifestations of Prakriti.
In Hinduism, Saraswati is Brahmacharini, Brahma's assistant in the creation of the universe. Saraswati is Brahma's wife, the mother of the Vedas. She binds heaven and earth in conjugal union and creates the heavenly Bridal Chamber—the Chamber of salvation and eternal bliss.
In Buddhism, Saraswati (Biancaitian in Chinese culture, Yangchenma in Tibetan culture) is considered the consort of the Bodhisattva of Wisdom, Manjushri.
In Shintoism, in Japan, Saraswati (Benzaiten) is one of the seven deities of happiness.
Sarasvati dwells on earth among people, but has a special refuge with her husband in Brahmaloka.
Sarasvati is depicted as a beautiful, fair-skinned young woman dressed in white linen.
She is depicted with four arms (two arms symbolizing the wings of a swan). In one hand, she holds a cup of water. In her other hand, she holds the book of the Vedas, a symbol of knowledge. She holds a string of white pearls, called the Shivamala (Shiva's garland), which serves as a rosary—a symbol of spirituality. In her other hand, she holds a small drum—a symbol of art. When Saraswati is depicted seated on a lotus pedestal (padma-sana) and playing a harp-like instrument, she has only two arms. In some reliefs, her hands are folded in a protective gesture or a blessing. Sometimes she is depicted standing at full height. She is often depicted seated on a white swan, and her emblem is a six-pointed star. Her «vahana» is a white swan or a bull.
Sarasvati, being Brahma's wife, was considered his daughter. Therefore, the other devas considered her union with him criminal. However, among the asuras, this was common. She is sometimes called Vishnu's wife. The epic mentions the goddess's son, the rishi Sarasvat.
Devibhagavata Purana, 9.8. Hari can be seen everywhere in lakes, wells, and streams, and therefore he is called Sarasvan, and she, Sarasvati.
The Vaishnavas of Bengal have a legend that Sarasvati was Vishnu's wife, as were Lakshmi and Ganga. Sarasvati was quite quarrelsome. Vishnu, believing that one wife was enough even for a god, gave Sarasvati to Brahma, Ganga to Shiva, and was satisfied with Lakshmi alone.
Sarasvati is also called Shiva's wife.
Markandeya Purana. 88. The Brahman performed a sacrifice to Sarasvati on her behalf and calmly recited hymns addressed to Sarasvati.
O Mental Strength, Sarasvati, the Chosen One!
O Wealth, Wife of Babhru, the Dark One!
O Self-Controlled Queen, be merciful!
O Narayani, homage to you!
(Babhru or Beaver – Shiva).
In the Rig Veda, Sarasvati is called Vritraghni (the Destroyer of Vritra). A version of the myth of Vritra's slaying is contained in the sixth book of the Devibhagavata Purana. The goddess is called Vritra-pranahara (the Taker of Vritra's Life).
During the Vedic period, Sarasvati was revered as a purifier, protector, and healer. In the Rig Veda, verse 10.17 addresses Sarasvati as the goddess of ancestors and the current generation. In verses 1.13, 1.89, 10.85, 10.66, and 10.141, she is mentioned alongside other gods and goddesses, not rivers. In verse 10.65, she is addressed with "sacred thoughts" and "generosity," consistent with her role as the goddess of knowledge and fertility. Tradition (Rig Veda 10.135) relates that she, along with the celestial physicians Ashvins, healed the weakened Indra.
Sarasvati was primarily a river deity, as her name clearly indicates. Her involvement in sacred rites thus likely led to the subsequent conclusion about her influence on the creation of hymns, which formed an important part of the rites, and to her identification as the goddess of speech.
The evolution of the river goddess into a goddess of knowledge began with the later Brahmanas, which identified her with the goddess of speech due to the central role of speech in Vedic worship and the development of cults on the banks of the river. Although Sarasvati initially appeared as a river goddess in the Vedic hymns, she was rarely associated with the river in the Puranas. Instead, she became the goddess of knowledge, learning, wisdom, music, and the arts. She is often invoked alongside other deities.
Sarasvati is often invited to sacrifices along with several other goddesses, who were never river nymphs but personified either worship or sacred science.
In later mythology, Saraswati was identified with Vācha, and under various names became Brahma's consort, the goddess of wisdom and eloquence, and was addressed as a Muse. In the Mahabharata, she is called the mother of the Vedas, and the same is said of Vācha in the Taittariya Brahmana, where she is called Indra's wife, encompassing all worlds and sought by the rishis who composed the Vedic hymns, as well as by the gods who sought her through asceticism.
As Brahma's consort, Saraswati was called Vācha, Sandhya, Shatarupa, and Brahmani.
The usual list of Dharma's wives in the Puranas includes Lakshmi, Saraswati, Ganga, Vishvesa, and Savitri.
In the Varaha Purana, Sarasvati is mentioned as Gayatri, Maheshvari (one of Parvati's names), and Savitri.
In the Vayu Purana, 9.78-80: Svaha, Svadha, Mahavidya, Medha, Lakshmi, Sarasvati, Aparna, Ekaparna, Patala, Uma, Haimavati, Shasthi, Kalyani, Khyati, Prajfiya, Mahabhaga, and Gaurli. Know also briefly the universal forms assumed by the Noble Lady through the formation of individual bodies.
Devibhagavata Purana. 9.8. Sarasvati descended partially upon the holy land of Bharata due to the curse of the Ganges, but she herself remained in the abode of Hari. She is called Bharati because she descended upon the land of Bharata. Brahmi—because she is the beloved of Brahma. And because she is the deity presiding over speech, she is known as Vani. Hari can be seen everywhere in lakes, wells, and streams, and therefore he is called Sarasvan, and she, Sarasvati.
The Matsya Purana lists Lakshmi, Sarasvati, Sadhya, Vishvesa, and Urjasvati. From the list of their descendants, it follows that Kama was the son of Lakshmi. The Sadhyas were the sons of Sadhya. The Vishvadevas were the sons of Vishva. The Maruts were the sons of Marutvati. And Vasu was the descendant of Devi, who could be either Sarasvati or Savitri.
The Matsya Purana confirms the belief that only one goddess is meant, although she is called by several names: "Brahma then created from his own immaculate substance a woman who is celebrated by the names Satarupa, Savitri, Sarasvati, Gayatri, and Brahmani."
Known: Mahasaraswati (Great Saraswati) is the third great demon-fighting manifestation of the goddess Devi.
Nilasaraswati (Dark Blue Saraswati) is the manifest aspect of Tara. Another name is Vidyarajni (Queen of Knowledge).
In the legend from the Skanda Purana, Savitri refers to Saraswati, and Gayatri is a young, beautiful, and smiling milkmaid who became Brahma's second wife and the mother of the Vedas. In the legend, Ishvara (Shiva) addresses Devi (Parvati):
"Listen, O Devi, and I will tell you how Savitri left Brahma, and he subsequently became betrothed to Gayatri. The Vedas speak of the great benefits of sacrifice, which pleases the gods, and therefore they send rain upon the earth... Therefore, to ensure the greenery and vitality of the three worlds, I perform sacrifices. And, imitating me, the gods and humans perform sacrifices." For the same purpose, Brahma and his wife Savitri, the immortals and holy sages, set out for Pushkara. But when all the preparations for the sacrifices had been made, with all the necessary rites and ceremonies, Savitri, busy with household chores, failed to appear. So the priest went to call her.
But she replied, "I haven't finished my attire yet and haven't settled many matters. Lakshmi and Bhavani..."
"And Ganga, Svaha, Indrani, and the wives of the other gods and holy sages haven't arrived yet, so how can I enter the assembly alone?"
The priest returned and addressed Brahma: "Savitri is engaged and will not come. But without a wife, what good are these rites?"
The god, angered by Savitri's behavior, said to Indra, "Hurry and, obeying my command, fetch a wife from wherever you can."
Indra followed his instructions. And, hurrying past, he saw a young, beautiful, and smiling milkmaid carrying a jug of butter. He seized her and brought her to the assembly, whereupon Brahma said, "O gods and holy sages, if you deem it right, I will take this Gayatri in marriage, and she will become the mother of the Vedas and the cause of the purity of these worlds!"
After this, Brahma united with Gayatri, who was led into the bridal pavilion, where she was dressed in silken garments and adorned with the most precious ornaments.
At this time, Savitri, accompanied by the wives of Vishnu, Rudra, and other gods, arrived at the sacrificial site. Seeing the milkmaid in the bridal bed and the priests performing the sacred rites, she turned to Pitamaha in anger: "O Brahma! Have you really conceived such a sinful intention as to reject me, your wife? Are you not ashamed that, succumbing to love, you are committing such a reprehensible act? You are called the great father of gods and holy sages, and yet you publicly act here in a manner that must provoke the ridicule of the three worlds. But how can I now appear in public or, abandoned by my husband, call myself his wife?"
Brahma replied: "The priests have informed me that the time for the sacrifice is drawing to an end, and that it cannot be performed without the presence of my wife... and since Indra has brought Gayatri, Vishnu and Rudra have given her in marriage to me. Therefore, forgive me for this act, and I will never offend you again!”
Hearing these words, Savitri exclaimed, "By the power I have gained through my penance, let Brahma never be worshipped in a temple or sacred place except on one day a year...
And Indra, since you brought this milkmaid to Brahma, you will be chained by your enemies and imprisoned in a foreign land. And your city and your position will be occupied by your enemies."
Addressing Vishnu, she said, "Because you gave her in marriage to Brahma, then by Bhrigu's curse you will be born among men and suffer the torment of your enemy taking your wife from you. And for a long time you will wander, a humble herder of cattle!"
To Rudra she said, "By the curse of the holy sages, you will be deprived of your manhood!"
To Agni she said, "May you be a devourer of all that is pure and impure!"
She said to the priests and brahmins: "From now on, you will perform sacrifices solely out of a desire for ordinary gifts. And out of greed, you will visit temples and holy places. You will be content only with the food of others, and dissatisfied with the food of your own homes. And in pursuit of wealth, you will perform sacred rites and ceremonies to excess!"
Having uttered these curses, Savitri left the assembly and walked a short distance, accompanied by Lakshmi and the other goddesses, who all declared their intention to return.
Hearing this, Savitri became enraged and addressed them thus: "Since you are now leaving me, O Lakshmi! May you never remain in one place. And may you always dwell with the vile, fickle, contemptible, sinful, cruel, foolish, and barbaric! And, Indrani, when Indra commits Brahmin murder by killing Tvastri's son, then Nahusha will receive his kingdom and, desiring to have you, will exclaim: "Am I not Indra? Why then does not the young and beautiful Indrani serve me? If I do not have her, I will kill all the gods." Upon learning of his desires, you will remain in your home, immersed in grief and oppressed by the weight of my curse!"
Then Savitri pronounced this curse on the wives of the gods: "May you all remain barren, never having children!"
Vishnu then tried in vain to appease her. After Savitri angrily left the assembly, Gayatri modified her curses. She promised all manner of blessings, including final absorption by him, to all the worshipers of Brahma. Though Indra would be bound, his son would free him. Though Vishnu would lose his wife, he would regain her. Though Rudra would be deprived of his manhood, the lingam, as his representative, would be universally revered. Though men would bring gifts to the Brahmins, it would be because they revered them as gods. And though the goddesses would be unable to bear children of their own, this would not cause them regret.
In the Padma Purana, this story ends happier. Vishnu and Lakshmi, at Brahma's request, followed Savitri as she left the assembly and persuaded her to return. Upon returning, Brahma asked what she wanted him to do with Gayatri. Savitri was too shy to speak. Then Gayatri threw herself at her feet. Savitri lifted her up and, embracing her, said, "A wife must obey her husband's wishes and commands. For a wife who reproaches her husband, who complains and quarrels, and instead of being his life, deprives him of long life with her behavior, will surely go to hell after death. Given this, a virtuous wife will do nothing to displease her husband. Therefore, let us both be attached to Brahma." "So be it," said Gayatri. "I will always obey your commands and value your friendship as my life." "I am your daughter, oh goddess! Please protect me!"
2.
The Atharva Veda (the Veda of the Fire Priests) states: