The Lost Magic of Medieval Witches: Spells, Rituals, and Secret Traditions

2.1. The Inquisition and the Witch Hunts

Christianization began with an attempt to destroy pagan beliefs, with magic being seen as the most prominent manifestation of these “delusions.” Roman emperors, such as Constantine, officially adopted Christianity in the 4th century, and although people continued to believe in old gods and magical powers for a long time, gradually the Church took on the role of the ruler of both spiritual and earthly affairs.

At this stage, magic began to be associated with diabolical intervention. In Christian theology, it was viewed as an art based on secret knowledge that granted access to powers not favorable to God. The problem was that magic was not just a craft or an art form, but a part of the very fabric of people’s lives, and with the arrival of Christianity, its practices came to be seen as crimes against God and spiritual laws. In the first half of the Middle Ages, magic was perceived more as heretical delusion rather than a true crime.

In the landscape of Christianization, we see images of saints liberating the world from evil. Saint George slaying the dragon is a symbol of Christianity’s victory over evil. This dragon, according to the Church’s interpretation, personified ancient pagan beliefs, which the Church sought to eradicate, transforming them into sinister and sinful forces. Thus, ancient practices, including magic, began to be associated with dark forces against which the saints fought.

As the Catholic Church gained power in the Middle Ages, the era of the Inquisition began, fighting heresies, witches, and witchcraft. In the 13th century, Pope Innocent IV officially recognized magic as a crime, and in 1486, Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger published the book Malleus Maleficarum (“The Hammer of Witches”), which became the primary tool in the fight against witchcraft. This book taught how to identify witches and demons, how to torture suspects until confessions were obtained, and how to execute them. The text was filled with fear and condemnation, and its content was so brutal that it even stated that women accused of witchcraft should be burned alive.

One of the most infamous trials occurred in 1587 in Normandy, where many women were accused of witchcraft and imprisoned. Inquisitors used not only torture but also extrasensory methods to “detect witches,” such as searching for the “witch’s mark” — an invisible bump on the body that supposedly indicated a connection to the devil. The result of such accusations was often execution by burning, and sometimes even torture, such as attempts to force “witches” to confess using hot coals. During one trial in Germany, witnesses claimed that when one woman was condemned to be burned, her scream was so piercing that it could be heard several kilometers away.

The Inquisition used torture to make people confess to witchcraft. One of the most terrifying tools was the “witch’s cauldron,” where the accused woman was placed in a metal contraption that squeezed her body, and then subjected to further torture to extract the “truth.” All of this took place in an atmosphere of absolute fear, where even the smallest mistake could cost someone their life. An example of how inquisitors literally turned magic into a “science” of persecution is the creation of Malleus Maleficarum (“The Hammer of Witches”), which was not just a set of recommendations but also an official guide to identifying and condemning magic. The book became a standard reference for inquisitors and judges, asserting that all healers, witches, and magicians were in league with demons and capable of causing diseases, misfortunes, and disasters. It claimed that magic could heal people, but through unclean forces, binding them to the devil, and thus defiling the soul.

An example of mass persecutions is the trial that took place in Switzerland in 1650. In a small town, where famines and poverty led to outbreaks of epidemics, people began blaming healers and women who used herbs for their healing practices. This became the trigger for accusations, and over 200 women were executed. Special attention should be given to accusations that stemmed from personal conflicts. Often, accusations of witchcraft served as a pretext for eliminating those who needed to be removed from one’s path. An elderly and vulnerable woman, a healer with no support in society, could be branded a witch simply because someone wanted to seize her land or property.

One of the largest witch trials in England occurred in 1645 in the village of Barrington, where peasant women were accused of causing illness and death in the fields. This was tied to significant financial losses from crop failures, and local villagers were eager to find someone to blame, particularly elderly women whose knowledge of herbs seemed unusual. As a result, several women were burned at the stake, and their property was confiscated.

During this period, magic and any practices related to “folk” culture became symbols of evil. In later eras, during the Enlightenment, magic still remained deeply hidden. A prime example is the enduring folk belief in the power of nature, witchcraft, and mysticism, which continued to thrive but in secrecy. Many European villages continued their way of life, hiding their true customs from the outside world. In fact, the witch hunts were a true catastrophe for folk culture. Instead of passing on knowledge about healing herbs and magic, women who were once recognized as sources of wisdom now became victims of prejudice. Every suspicion of witchcraft led to tragic outcomes. These horrors not only destroyed lives but also erased the cultural heritage of entire peoples.

The witch hunts and the Inquisition were not simply a battle against magic — they were an obliteration of entire worldviews. Today, we see this as part of history, in which our culture suffered a great loss. The process of Christianization and the fight against magic, on the one hand, ensured the spread of religious ideas, but on the other hand, it destroyed established traditions that had, for centuries, maintained the connection between humans and nature, as well as their inner world.

When examining the Inquisition and the witch hunts, one cannot ignore the deep impact these phenomena had on the worldview of Western society. The fear of “wrong” knowledge, which could disrupt societal norms, is unlikely to disappear. The history of the Inquisition left an indelible mark on culture, art, and even social psychology, creating biased and often catastrophic images of “dark forces” that must be “purged” or destroyed. This fear still lives in our culture. Literature and cinema often use images of witches and sorcerers as symbols of a hidden threat that defies logic, tapping into those very instincts that the Inquisition sought to exploit in its fight against “heresy.” The myths about dark forces, demons, witches, and their persecution remain relevant because they are connected to the inner, primal fear of what lies beyond accepted norms.

Magic during the Inquisition era was often associated with women, which was also part of a broader social context. Women, especially older ones, frequently became the victims of witchcraft accusations. Many were accused of magic simply because they did not conform to the social norms of the time. Women with knowledge of herbs, who were considered healers, often became targets of persecution.

Moreover, magic in the Middle Ages was often linked to concerns about female sexuality. The Church’s enemy was not just magic itself, but also the image of women as potential bearers of power that could be misused — for manipulation, disruption of the “natural order,” and as a threat to patriarchal society. Take, for example, the historical trial of women in the Swiss town of Solothurn at the turn of the 16th century. These women were accused of supposedly practicing witchcraft and using magic to harm men. The accusations came from locals who could not understand the mysterious power and independence of these women, who were often involved in healing or were endowed with wisdom passed down through generations.

The Inquisition and the witch hunts are not just pages of history; they are lessons for the future. The history of the fight against magic reminds us of how easily we can give in to fear and the oppression of anything that is misunderstood or does not conform to societal norms. The example of these brutal practices serves as a reminder of the need to respect different cultures, beliefs, and ways of life, as well as the responsibility in the use of knowledge and power. Magic has always been and remains part of human nature, an inevitable need — and no matter how its perception changes, the desire to seek answers in a world full of unexplored forces will always exist.

2.2. The Inquisition and the Witch

We have already mentioned the book Malleus Maleficarum (translated from Latin as The Hammer of Witches), written in 1486 by the German monks Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger. It became one of the most influential and terrifying works in the history of the Christian Inquisition. Let us focus on it more closely, as this book not only set the tone for the witch hunts in Europe but also legitimized both ecclesiastical and secular persecutions of magic as a threat to the order established by God. Malleus Maleficarum became a sort of theoretical foundation for the practice of the Inquisition, transforming into a guide for accusing and destroying “witches” and “wizards.”

At the end of the 15th century, Europe was experiencing a period of religious and social upheaval. After the fall of Constantinople and the intensification of contacts with the East, various mystical teachings, magical practices, and ideas about the “unclean power” became popular in Europe. During this period, the Catholic Church, facing growing threats to its authority, vigorously opposed anything that could undermine its power — and magic was one of the main targets. While magic and witchcraft had existed since pagan times, it was Malleus Maleficarum that presented the official doctrine of witches, expanding the concept of “witchcraft” and making it a criminal offense. This work was written with the aim of creating a unified and authoritative approach to the investigation and punishment of witches, relying on Christian doctrine. At the time, the Church actively used its power not only to spread religious truths but also to establish absolute control over the population, eliminating anything that could be perceived as a threat to the established order.

The main goal of Malleus Maleficarum was to create a theological foundation for the persecution of witches. In the book, the authors argued that witches were servants of the devil and that they caused harm to all Christians. Magic was described as a means by which a person enters into an agreement with the devil, rejecting divine grace.

The first volume of the book is dedicated to defining and explaining the nature of witchcraft. Kramer and Sprenger insisted that magic was the result of a pact between women (especially women) and the devil, who grants them supernatural powers in exchange for their souls. The devil, as a skilled manipulator, taught women to seduce and inflame carnal passions, to break Christian moral principles, and to sow diseases, destroy crops, and threaten stability.

Many of the accusations against women described in Malleus Maleficarum were based on stereotypes and fabrications. For example, one of the main “signs” that a woman was a witch was her independence, especially if she was unmarried. Thus, any woman who deviated from socially established norms could be declared a witch. Furthermore, women accused of witchcraft were often charged with having sexual relations with the devil. To support their belief in the existence of these dark connections, Kramer and Sprenger proposed their “scientific” theories, suggesting that the devil could enter women’s bodies and engage in carnal relations with them, which was sometimes accepted as proof of their wrongdoings. This concept had a strong impact on the perception of witches, making them figures that symbolized moral and physical corruption.

The second part of the book is devoted to describing methods of identifying witches. One of the most controversial aspects of Malleus Maleficarum were the torture methods proposed as necessary to extract truthful confessions. A witch had to be “tested” through the most brutal forms of torture to uncover her involvement with demonic forces.

One of the most famous methods for finding witches was the “water test” — the accused woman was thrown into water. If she drowned, she was considered innocent; if she floated, she was found guilty of witchcraft. This practice could lead to the woman’s death, regardless of her innocence. Additionally, Kramer and Sprenger suggested using so-called “devil’s marks,” such as birthmarks or scars, which could be signs that a woman had made a pact with the devil. These marks were used as grounds for accusations, and logic or evidence had no impact on their validity.

Malleus Maleficarum became a key theoretical tool for the witch hunts, significantly increasing the number of accusations and executions. Although the book was banned in some countries due to its brutal ideas, it gained widespread popularity in Europe and became the foundation for the persecution of women accused of witchcraft for centuries. The Inquisition used it as a guide for investigating and prosecuting women suspected of witchcraft. Each case of accusation became a formal procedure. Witches were no longer seen just as monstrous criminals, but as beings who threatened the very existence of Christian society by destroying the “natural” order established by God. This fear and the mass repression inevitably linked to Malleus Maleficarum became the catalyst for many tragic stories.

Malleus Maleficarum greatly shaped public perceptions of women as objects of suspicion and punishment. Women were generally assigned the role of “witches,” symbolizing the destruction of the world and moral order. This stereotype remained relevant in Western culture for centuries and was often used to justify the oppression of women and the suppression of their voices in society. At the same time, the book essentially legitimized the use of violence in the fight against magic, reinforcing a system of repression that affected not only religious practices but also personal freedom and autonomy. Women practicing herbalism or possessing knowledge passed down through generations became targets of mass repression and attacks by both the Church and the state. Through Malleus Maleficarum, moral behavior norms, religious dogmas, and even the concepts of health and illness were rewritten. After Malleus Maleficarum was published, the book gained widespread recognition and practical application in Inquisition courts, becoming a sort of standard for combating witchcraft in Europe. It was translated into numerous languages and used in different countries to “legitimize” persecutions. The witch hunts continued for centuries, and this work became a key element in shaping the image of the witch as a threat to the moral order.

Malleus Maleficarum became the foundation for trials against those accused of witchcraft, and its influence was evident at every stage of such trials — from investigation to the application of punishments. This especially complicated the situation for women, as the majority of witchcraft accusations were directed at them.

According to the recommendations of the book, the focus in the investigative process was not on actual evidence, but rather on who could be accused of witchcraft, as well as their behavior and personal characteristics. The accused were often subjected to brutal torture, which was supposed to “prove” their guilt. Kramer and Sprenger describe torture as a method for “obtaining the truth,” despite the fact that, in reality, torture only amplified false confessions. For example, the accused were given the choice to “confess” or “not confess,” with promises of “forgiveness” for confession, but still subjected to torture regardless. Those who could not withstand the torture generally gave false testimony, which was then used to confirm their guilt. The book argued that women were especially susceptible to the temptation of the devil due to their “weaker” nature, which served as justification for mass accusations, often based on purely social or personal antagonism. Women who were independent or simply did not conform to accepted moral norms were usually targeted for accusations. Many women accused of witchcraft were herbalists, folk healers, or had knowledge passed down through generations. These practices were often perceived as a threat to orthodox religion and became a reason for accusations, despite their usefulness to society. In particular, any signs or abilities related to healing (such as the use of herbs) could be interpreted as magical influence and cooperation with the devil.

One of the most destructive consequences of the application of Malleus Maleficarum was the countless executions and mass repressions. After the book was published, not only individual trials began, but also true Inquisitional campaigns that spread across nearly all European countries. In some countries, such as Germany, France, Spain, and England, tens of thousands of people, mostly women, were executed for witchcraft. These countries witnessed mass trials with thousands of accused individuals. For example, in Nuremberg during the 1470s, over 500 people were executed for witchcraft.

Witchcraft trials became a widespread phenomenon, and for several centuries, anyone suspected of witchcraft could become a victim of accusations and brutal torture. Women accused of having a “connection with the devil” were targeted by the Inquisition, and all their “misdeeds” — even the slightest deviations from social or religious norms — were interpreted as evidence of crimes.

The influence of Malleus Maleficarum was especially evident in torture practices. It is well-known that the Inquisition used agonizing methods such as hoisting the body on ropes (sometimes breaking the bones of the accused due to pressure), the “water test,” and various devices designed to inflict pain. Women were subjected to these tortures and forced to confess their “guilt,” which sometimes led to mass executions. In France and England, the mass extermination of women accused of witchcraft was also linked to the book, which fueled panic and stoked fears about magic and unclean forces. This led to the creation of a dark and paranoid atmosphere in society, where any suspicion could lead to trial, torture, and death.

Malleus Maleficarum not only supported mass executions but also reinforced stereotypes about women as “weak” and “sinful” beings who were easily susceptible to the devil’s temptation. Women accused of witchcraft were often portrayed as “unclean” and as enemies of Christian morality, which reinforced the view of them as objects needing strict control. Over time, after decades of repression and genocide, this stereotype continued to live on in culture, influencing how women, their knowledge, and their roles in society were perceived.

Despite its popularity, Malleus Maleficarum faced some criticism. In the 16th century, the book was banned by the Catholic Church in several countries, such as Italy and Spain, due to its excessive cruelty and its contradictions with the canonical doctrines of the Church. It was even condemned by some church authorities, yet its influence on judicial processes and the Inquisition remained long-lasting and strong.

Malleus Maleficarum became a powerful tool that influenced several centuries of religious persecution and social repression. It became the embodiment of fear and intolerance, leaving a terrifying legacy in European history. The witch hunts inspired by this book affected the lives of thousands of people, especially women, and continued to influence the perception of magic and witchcraft in cultures that underwent Inquisitorial processes. This historical period serves as a warning of how unfounded fear and misunderstanding can lead to tragic consequences, destroying lives and creating an atmosphere of total suspicion. After Malleus Maleficarum became a symbol of religious intolerance and oppression, its influence continued to be felt for centuries. The Christianization process, particularly in the context of the fight against magic and “witches,” left deep scars in society, including in philosophy and culture. The events surrounding the spread of this book impacted legal systems, the perception of the role of women in society, and the development of science and religion.

One of the long-term consequences of the use of Malleus Maleficarum was its influence on the legal systems of many countries, particularly regarding accusations of witchcraft and magic. In many European countries, such as Germany, France, and England, the creation of Inquisitorial courts and the intensification of trials against those accused of witchcraft can be traced to the principles outlined in this book.

In countries where the Inquisition was actively practiced, witch and wizard trials often followed the same patterns suggested in Malleus Maleficarum. The book provided inquisitors with certain procedures that became mandatory for investigations. These included brutal tortures, which were used to force confessions, as well as a schematic definition of who could be accused of witchcraft (for example, women living alone or those who violated social norms). One of the most damaging ideas presented in Malleus Maleficarum was the belief that a “witch” must confess her crimes. The book explicitly stated that a confession was not just evidence of guilt but, in itself, granted the right to justice. This led to torture becoming the standard in court trials, and it was nearly impossible to acquit the accused, especially if they could not prove their innocence.