Apocalyptic Concepts in the Middle Ages

Apocalyptic Concepts

in the

Middle Ages

Valeria Kosiakova

Apocalyptic Conceptsin the Middle Ages. — М.: BookVedy, 2026.

The book is dedicated to the peculiar “adventures” of the Apocalypse. The author analyzes myths, legends, canonical and visual texts, folklore, and apocrypha, identifying the traditional and the explicit, the official and the marginal, the hidden and the fantastical, the ideological and the political — dimensions of the representation of the Apocalypse. Special attention in the book is given to the specific experiences on the eve of the Early Modern period, the analysis of the works of Hieronymus Bosch, his unique visionary eschatology, the surprising nuances and aspects of his artistic universe, as well as the figure of Ivan the Terrible and the embodiment of utopian ambitions to create a New Jerusalem on earth, which must be preceded by apocalyptic chaos and the Last Judgment. The book is addressed to both the general reader and the specialist.

Valeria Kosiakova, Associate Professor and PhD, Russian State University for the Humanities, Moscow.

Academic reviewers: Dmitry Pozdnyakov, Nikita Gaidykov.

ББК 87.65

УДК 291.13

e-ISBN 978-5-4465-2326-9

К72

© Valeria Kosiakova, 2026

Contents

From the author

Chapter 1. Apocalypse Forever

An archaic myth about the end of the world

Monotheistic End of the World

The Apocalypse of Christ

How the Book of Revelation of John the Theologian is structured

Alpha and Omega

Metamorphoses of Perception

Apocalypse in pictures: visualization

Picturesque Last Judgment

Chapter 2. Hieronymus Bosch's Apocalypse

Bosch and the 20th century

The World of Hieronymus Bosch

The devil is in the details

Three triptychs of the apocalypse

Hay and Monkeys: Vanity and Demons

The Last Judgment: Instruction

The Garden of Earthly Delights. Apocalypse 18+

Chapter 3. The Apocalypse of Moscow Kingdom

The conception of the eschatology of Rus'

Ivan the Terrible – Horseman of the Apocalypse

Imaginary and fantastic architecture

Apocalyptic donkey

Apocalyptic war

All roads lead to the Heavenly Jerusalem

Apocalypse in action

Links

From the author

This book explores a crucial concept, especially in the medieval era—the End of the World, the anticipation of it. The book's protagonist, as well as its primary image, is the Apocalypse. But what is the Apocalypse? How did it arise? What are its origins? Why did the image of total collapse become so ubiquitous and even appealing? What do the Book of Revelation, the paintings of Hieronymus Bosch, and the sinister political activities of Ivan the Terrible have in common? An examination of three characters, still iconic today, allows us to see the dynamics of the medieval idée fixe, the obsession with the idea of the End of the World. Initially a myth and oral tradition, this concept was gradually fueled by preaching, then cemented by writing, transformed into a text called the "Apocalypse," which soon acquired canonical status. This powerful and figurative prophecy influences minds and imaginations, causing people to fear, dream, and create a visual equivalent of the nightmarish visions of the inevitable future described by the author of "Revelation." The pictorial canon forms yet another dimension to the idea of the End Times, which increasingly takes on "flesh." The Apocalypse draws ever closer to humanity, tightening its grip on them, becoming real, present, and actual. The representation, reinforced by textual and visual canons, which enter into a dialectical interaction and mutual influence, becomes a powerful intellectual tool, generating a unique ideological discourse. Finally, the representation, having passed through the stages of myth, dream, text, and image, transforms into direct political action on a national scale, implemented by the Russian Tsar.

The concept of the apocalypse is one of the fundamental algorithms of European culture. This concept troubled not only Christians at the dawn of the new era, theologians, and ordinary believers, but also thinkers of the new generation—from Isaac Newton to Stephen Hawking. Many contemporary works of fiction (and not so fiction) (texts, films, games), both popular and elite, cannot exist without the inclusion of an eschatological code. In difficult times of adversity, crises of various kinds, cultural depressions, and revolutions, this code once again acquires strength and symbolic significance. Mikhail Bulgakov's "The Master and Margarita" or "The Golden Calf" by Ilya Ilf and Yevgeny Petrov, Boris Pasternak's "Doctor Zhivago" or Venedikt Erofeyev's "Moscow-Petushki," the novels of Yuri Mamleev or Viktor Erofeyev, Vladimir Orlov's "Viola Player Danilov" or Vladimir Sorokin's "Ice," etc.—Russian literature of the 20th century is particularly replete with apocalyptic images, manifested in direct or veiled allusions, travesty-like or very peculiar interpretations of figures from the eschatological code, not to mention the reception and reflection of utopian messianism and the role of Rus'/Russia in the fate of the world.

All illustrations in this book can be enlarged and viewed in more detail using the internet—for this purpose, they are provided with detailed bibliographic information. A list of sources at the end of the book and a set of page-by-page notes can direct the most assiduous reader to more detailed interpretations and explanations not included in this book.

In conclusion of these brief introductory remarks, the author expresses his deepest gratitude to all those people who made it possible for this work to appear in print.

Chapter 1. Apocalypse Forever

Where to begin a narrative about the apocalypse? Isn't it with the fact that the idea of the End of the World has been an integral part of every culture since time immemorial? The forms of representation of this idea are varied: from the eschatological myth of an ancient people or an archaic religious object in a museum display case to the latest blockbuster with a moralizing subtext, depicting a world on the brink of extinction. Common colloquial formulas such as "apocalyptic landscape," "apocalyptic," or "post-apocalyptic" express the idea of finality, desolation, and despair. Many literary texts of the 20th and 21st centuries narrate the decline of family and country, the existential crises of heroes, the sense of the end of history, the decline of civilization, the "death of the author," "death of the reader," "death of the subject," and so on. Even if "apocalypse" doesn't become the main theme of such works, it ominously looms between the lines, creating a disturbing atmosphere. What is apocalypse? Are the metamorphoses of history, the entropy of social formations, wars, crises, and the doom of man to death perceived through a universal eschatological symbolic code, or is it a purely European cultural trait, constructed by Christian dogma? Can we say that apocalypse is a rational universal, or is it an unconscious sublimation of hidden human anxieties, fears, and fantasies? Be that as it may, the artifacts included in the apocalyptic imagery are countless, and the field of research is endless.

Concepts of the End of the World have their roots in archaic cultures. Eschatological myths and legends (from the ancient Greek ἔσχατον — "final," "last" and λόγος — "word," "knowledge") tell of fatal catastrophes and natural disasters that wipe out the human race. Many mythological systems describe the creation and birth of the world, the establishment of cosmic order, the struggle with chthonic beings, and the exploits of heroes. But if existence or life had a divinely given beginning, then, according to the logic of myth, an ending is inevitable: just as all life comes to an end, so too will the universe in the end times return to the same chaos from which it was created. The beliefs of the Kai tribe (New Guinea) describe a creator named Malengfung. Having created the world and humanity, he retreated to the ends of the earth, beyond the horizon, and fell asleep. Every time he turns in his sleep, the earth trembles, but when he awakens and rises, the sky will fall to the earth, destroying all life. A legend from one of the Caroline Islands claims that the creator will one day destroy humanity for its sins, but the gods will live on, implying a new creation of the world. A legend from another Caroline Island tells of a creator who will flood the island when his son grows tired of caring for humanity. And the Negritania tribe on the Malay Peninsula tells of the destruction of the world by the thunder god Karei for disrespecting his will. Therefore, during thunderstorms, the natives try to avert catastrophe by offering bloody atoning sacrifices. Although the catastrophe will be universal, it will be followed by a new creation 1.

An archaic myth about the end of the world

Most myths of New Guinea, Mesoamerica, Native Americans, and other archaic and primitive cultures, when telling about the End of the World, assume a cyclical structure: the world is destroyed by God due to some ritual violations or due to the old age and fatigue of the world itself, but a global, most often natural, catastrophe is followed by a new creation. According to Aztec beliefs, for example, the world had already been destroyed three or four times, and a fourth (or fifth) destruction was expected in the future, associated with the disappearance of the sun and a total flood, after which, however, one pious couple would survive. The Choctaw Indian tribe believed that the world, having already suffered a flood, would be destroyed by fire, but the souls of the dead would return, their bones would become fleshy, and the resurrected people would once again find themselves in their former habitats 2. A similar myth can be found among the Eskimos: people will be resurrected, gaining life from their bones (a belief typical of hunting tribes). Let us also recall the ancient Egyptians, who so carefully created mummies: they preserved each organ of the deceased in separate jars, inserted eyes, painted anthropomorphic sarcophagi - and all this so that the soul would not get lost after death and would return, recognizing and reviving its owner.

Archaic myths, in their various forms, represent an idea inherent to the worldview of their era. This is the idea of the renewal of natural cycles, the renewal of life on earth, and the cleansing of humanity from accumulated sin. Myths, legends, and traditions tell of the destruction of humanity (partial or total); they convey a positive idea of the infinity of existence, because death is followed by a return to the original: after the destruction of the old world, a new one will be born. The poetics of myth presupposes analogical thinking: just as a human being is born, grows up, ages, and dies, so the world goes through a similar vital cycle. Most often, after the End of the World, which comes as a flood or other global catastrophe that destroys people, a couple—a man and a woman—survives, from whom the human race begins anew, or the deity itself creates a new world.

The oldest myth of the destruction of humanity by flood was recorded in writing in the Sumero-Acadian culture long before the Bible. A partially surviving clay tablet from the city of Nippur, dating back to the 3rd millennium BC, tells of a worldwide flood 3: a certain deity (most likely Enki, the deity responsible for the earth and waters) informs the other gods of his desire to preserve humanity, hoping that the survivors will build temples and make their cities religious centers. With the exception of one ruler—Ziusudra, the Sumerian prototype of the biblical Noah—the entire world is mired in sin, not honoring the gods. Instigated by God, Ziusudra builds a ship to escape the flood: “ All the storms raged simultaneously with unprecedented force. And at that very moment the flood inundated the main sanctuary. For seven days and seven nights the flood inundated the earth. And the winds carried the enormous ship across the stormy waters. Then came Utu (the sun god), the giver of light to heaven and earth. Then Ziusudra opened a window on his great ship. And Utu, the hero, penetrated the great ship with his rays. Ziusudra, the king, prostrated himself before Utu. The king killed a bull for him and slaughtered a sheep 4. " The flood is also described in the Sumero-Akkadian-Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the oldest surviving literary works in the world, the earliest fragments of which date back to the 2nd millennium BC.

In India, the doctrine of the destruction of the universe was known since Vedic times (2000–1500 BCE). Commentaries on the Vedas (Brahmanas) and ancient epics (Puranas) developed the idea of four generations of the world—yugas. In its first generation (Kritayuga), the world is more perfect than in subsequent ones. With the advent of subsequent yugas, man deteriorates spiritually and physically: the world order regresses, the mind and body weaken, and lifespan shortens. The divine day, lasting 8.64 billion years, consists of the "day of Brahma" (kalpa: Sanskrit kalpa— "order," "law") and the "night of Brahma" (pralaya: Sanskrit pralaya —disintegration, dissolution). The Mahakalpa (Brahma's lifespan: 100 divine years) and its accompanying Mahapralaya (Sanskrit: mahapralaya —great disintegration) form a more grandiose cyclical cycle. However, the great disintegration is not final and is inevitably replaced by a new birth (sarga: Sanskrit: sarga , from the root srj —to release, to emit).

Buddhism posits a similar cyclical nature of time, a gradual, regressive decline of the universe. The Buddhist period of the mahakalpa is followed by the destruction of all worlds, including the human world. The collapse of the worlds proceeds from the lowest to the highest. First, the most "long-term" and terrible hells decay and collapse (there is a theory that this destruction will occur because no one will be born in the hells anymore, as the universe will no longer contain "malicious" violators of karmic laws). Following the lower worlds, the human worlds will begin to collapse. When they too turn to dust, the worlds of the gods and demigods will also begin to perish, and eventually even the palaces of the celestials will crumble. With the completion of the cycle, the entire universe is destroyed. Then, after a vast period of time, the universe unfolds anew. In Buddhism, the series of mahakalpas is considered endless and beginningless.

Ancient Egyptian myths also tell of the destruction and rebirth of the human race. But the unique monuments of this culture are the "Pyramid Texts" (Old Kingdom - 24th–22nd centuries BC ), the "Sarcophagus Texts" (Middle Kingdom — 21st – 17th centuries BC), and the "Book of the Dead" (New Kingdom — 16th – 12th centuries BC) tell not of universal death, but of individual death. Initially, funeral texts, intended to ensure the king a blessed life beyond the coffin, were read aloud. They were later transferred to the sarcophagi of courtiers and nobles, and finally to papyri adorned with drawings depicting burial scenes, funeral rituals, and posthumous judgment. This is how the "Book of the Dead" emerged—a complex religious and magical collection that evolved over centuries. Sacred texts, where ethical teachings were intertwined with ancient magic, included various works related to the afterlife cult. The famous 125th chapter of the "Book" describes the posthumous judgment of Osiris over the dead, which was depicted on the walls of tombs, then on sarcophagi, and gradually became a part of the ancient Egyptian iconographic canon. The crowned Osiris, king and judge of the afterlife, was depicted seated on a throne, holding a staff and whip—the symbols of royal authority. The gods sat above him. In the center of the courtroom stood a scale on which the gods Thoth and Anubis weighed the heart—a symbol of the soul of the deceased. In chapter 30, the deceased asks his heart not to testify against himself at the trial. So, on one side of the scale is the heart (soul, conscience)—light or burdened with sins—and on the other is truth, represented by the feather of the goddess Maat or her figurine. If a person led a righteous life on earth, their heart and feather weigh equally; if they sinned, the heart outweighed the feather. The acquitted deceased was sent to the afterlife, while the sinner was devoured by the monster Amat (a creature with the head of a crocodile and combining the features of a lion and a hippopotamus). The defendant delivered a long justification speech to his judges and the jury: “Here I come to you, Lord of Truth; I bring the truth, I drive away lies. I have done no injustice to people. I have done no evil. I have not done what is an abomination to the gods. I have not killed. I have not diminished the loaves in the temples, I have not diminished the food of the gods, I have not snatched funeral offerings from the dead. I have not diminished the grain measures, I have not shortened the lengths, I have not violated the fields' measurements, I have not increased the weights, I have not tampered with the scales' needles. I am pure... "5

The story of humanity's decline is also told in the myths of Ancient Greece, integral to Western European culture. In his poem "Works and Days," Hesiod presents the world as a gradual degradation occurring over the course of five epochs. The first epoch—the "golden age" under the Titan Cronus—was a kind of paradise: people lived long, never aged, and their existence seemed akin to that of the gods. But then humanity descended: the Silver, Bronze, Heroic, and Iron Ages. With the advent of each new age, life, as seemed natural, worsened. Hesiod believed he lived in a less than ideal era of the world's old age: the heroic times were over; the world, once energized, had exhausted its energy, and Zeus would destroy it when children were born gray-haired. Heraclitus believed that the world would ultimately be destroyed by fire. Plato, in his Timaeus, suggests an alternative: the destruction of the world by a flood.

Not only in the fertile south but also in the north, humanity pondered the End of the World. In Norse mythology, so attractive for film adaptations, a vivid eschatological image is presented in the scenes of a cosmic battle described in the Eddas. The dead seer Völva, summoned from the grave by Odin, predicted the last day of the world's existence—Ragnarök. Its arrival would be preceded by the breakdown of tribal norms, bloody strife among kin, and moral chaos. The Vafthúrdnir, the Elder Edda, and the Younger Edda also mention a three-year "giant winter" preceding Ragnarök. According to the prophecy, on the day of Ragnarök, the monstrous wolf Fenrir will break free from his bonds and swallow the Sun, plunging the world into darkness—then the sea will overflow its banks, and the world serpent Jörmungandr will emerge from the depths. These monsters will be joined by the fire giant Surtr, with his flaming sword that scorches the earth, Hel, the ruler of the underworld, and the treacherous fire god Loki, along with the giants. A ship of the dead will arrive. The army of the sons of Muspelheim will ride across the rainbow bridge Bifröst, which will collapse in the process. All the Aesir, led by Odin, will oppose the army. In the final battle, Odin and Fenrir will perish, Thori and the serpent Jörmungandr will fall, and all the others will perish too, for neither evil nor good can defeat each other. Then the giant Surt will destroy the earth with all his fiery might, thus ending the battle between Darkness and Light. But the world's destruction will be followed by its rebirth: the sons of Odin and Thor will survive and settle in the Valley of the Gods (in the center of Asgard). The woman Liv and the man Livthrasir will survive, sheltered in a grove, and will once again give rise to the human race.

Monotheistic End of the World

The eschatology of the most ancient faiths is cyclical, in contrast to the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) with their linear concept, in which the time of the world is like an arrow released by God and rapidly flying towards its final eschatological goal.

According to the Bible, the beginning of the world and human existence also belongs to a kind of "golden age," but with the violation of God's will, the life of Adam and Eve in the earthly paradise comes to an end. This is followed by the degradation of the human race, culminating in the flood. After the "ritual purification by water," a new life begins with the line of Noah. However, until Abraham, the true God remains hidden from man. The relationship between God and man is finally cemented on the tablets of the covenant given to Moses. The coming of the prophet marked the beginning of the eschatological time. The Jews reached the highest spiritual level at the time of the giving of the Torah, but their worship of the golden calf, contrary to divine commandments, prevented the advent of the messianic era. God's chosen people were forced to continue their wait for the true messiah, which for them was not Jesus of Nazareth.

The views on eschatology vary across the various doctrines of the Abrahamic religions. Some Jewish and Islamic texts speak of a fatal error or catastrophe that occurred during the creation of the world, which is why it is always characterized by an element of imperfection and decay. Christian teaching, however, holds that the Kingdom of God is already among believers (Luke 17:21), so the Christian perception of time is characterized by a permanent sense of the End of the World: " He is certainly good who daily looks for death, and he is holy who desires it at every hour . " 6The culmination of this sense is the idea of the Second Coming of Christ and the Apocalypse. In Jewish and Christian religions, the End of the World will occur only once, since the world was created only once. In the Judeo-Christian myth, time is linear and irreversible. Eschatology reveals the sacred significance of human actions: people will be judged by their deeds. After the Last Judgment, only the righteous, those who believe in Holy Scripture, will attain eternal bliss.

The Judeo-Christian paradigm introduces new notions of secular and divine time into the history of culture, reunited in an inevitable future event when the heavenly and the earthly will converge at a single point—the apocalypse. Christian temporality breaks the vicious circle of archaic time cycles and rushes forward, like a spear-bearer on horseback, yearning for defeat or triumph, toward its highest, predestined goal—the End of Ends, the Last Judgment, the meeting place of man and God.

Prophecies of the End of the World have captivated theologians from the dawn of the Christian era, through the Middle Ages, and into the modern era—right up to the present day. Even completely secularized apocalyptic signs, symbols, and images, while no longer considered essential, still provide a link to fundamental cultural codes.

Eschatological concepts are present in many myths and beliefs, but the Apocalypse, as a distinct literary genre, originates in the Jewish and early Christian traditions, describing revelations received by a seer or prophet about events, symbols, and an afterlife inaccessible to most ordinary people. The central idea of the Apocalypse is an allegorical, figurative depiction of the future and the End of the World.

The term "Apocalypse" (Greek: ἀποκάλυψις —revelation, disclosure (of secrets), Latin synonym— revelatio ) was first used in the late first century by John the Theologian to denote a specific genre of revelation. The term caught on with the audience and became established in the titles of subsequent apocalyptic works. However, characteristics of the apocalyptic genre are attributed to earlier works, and its origin is associated with the Jewish literary milieu of the mid- second century BC.

Why did a specific genre arise that describes disasters, plagues, punishments, death and human suffering, on the one hand, and the promise of salvation and bliss to the righteous, on the other?

All eras, especially those of unfavorable and changing times, are sublimated and reflected in concentrated form both in folklore, tales, and legends, as well as in works of art and the heroes created by the outstanding authors of these eras. Often, in the popular consciousness and art, passionate historical figures—Patriarch Nikon, Peter the Great, Napoleon, Lenin, Stalin, etc.—are conceptualized as the Antichrist or as horsemen of the apocalypse, appearing in the world shortly before the Last Judgment. At the same time, at the end From the 17th to the first half of the 19th centuries, the Marquis de Sade's provocative prose emerged as a premonition and consequence of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. The rise of Romanticism saw the development of increasingly terrifying and monstrous images, while Goethe's Werther and Faust, Pushkin's Onegin, and Lermontov's Pechorin became iconic figures—symbols of the era. Artistic interpretations of disasters and catastrophes seem called upon to re-experience the past, but in a detached or even alienated way, allowing people to cope, cope, and come to terms with what cannot be reconciled.