- -
- 100%
- +
During the 13th century, cities flourished across Europe, stimulating the development of universities, the arts, and intellectual culture 65. Images of the Last Judgment appeared with renewed vigor in the architecture of Gothic cathedrals: they adorned the central portal of Notre-Dame de Paris, later the north portal of Notre-Dame Cathedral in Reims, St. Stephen's Cathedral in Bourges, and many others.
The extraordinary rise in culture was also reflected in the tradition of illuminated manuscripts, in particular the apocalypses of France and England in the 13th and 14th centuries, executed in the Gothic style to match the new, elevated type of architecture.
The Gothic type of Apocalypse arose around the 1240s in England in the context of discussions about the End of the World, inspired by the sermons of Joachim of Fiore ( Gioacchino yes Fiore ). Besides him, many European thinkers expected the coming of the Antichrist around 1260.
The "Morgan group," a collection containing similar illustrated copies of the Apocalypse, is 66an example of the Gothic cycle . In the first versions, the illustrations were accompanied by commentary by Berengadus, and later the text of Revelation itself was added. In copies from 1245–55, the images occupy a significant portion of the page and are more colorful and detailed. The text of Revelation and its commentary are placed beneath the three-dimensional image, appearing as a modest addition. The total number of images in these manuscripts ranges from 80 to 100. Scenes depicting the deeds of the Antichrist and the apocryphal life of John were added to the traditional visual set of Revelation illustrations of the Romanesque period 67.
The exquisite Gothic style began to spread throughout northern France and Flanders in the late 13th century, and soon captivated other European nations. The extensive "Morgan Group" comprises approximately 100 manuscripts from the 13th to 15th centuries, produced throughout Europe. Initially, they were intended for monasteries, as the illustrations conveyed theological thought. However, commissions for these new apocalypses increasingly came from the aristocracy and the court, resulting in exegetical picture books being transformed into exquisite tomes for personal use, increasingly embracing entertainment and decoration, intricacy and luxury.
From this extensive family of European Gothic manuscripts, a specifically English tradition of apocalypses is distinguished: the "Metz group," which arose in the mid- 13th century; the "Westminster group," to which the Apocalypse from The Cloisters Museum (New York) , created in Normandy, 68belongs 69. The Trinity College Apocalypse, Cambridge, summarizes the early English Gothic tradition (see Fig. 4, 11).
Magnificent Gothic manuscripts of the Apocalypse inspired artists in Foggy Albion to create frescoes in Westminster Abbey, and in France , the creators of the grandiose "Apocalypse of Angers." The Gothic Cathedral of Saint-Maurice in Angers was adorned with a series of unique tapestries depicting numerous scenes from the Apocalypse, woven from wool and silk (between 1373 and 1381) for Louis I of Anjou by his court weaver, Nicolas Bataille.
At the same time, on the continent, independently of England, its own Gothic tradition was developing. The Bible, moral or popular ( Bible The Biblia pauperum (moralis é e , Biblia pauperum ) is a voluminous illustrated tome commissioned by the French royal family between 1220 and 1230 in Paris—a striking example of medieval art. The manuscripts contained both the text of the Bible and commentary-illustrations in the form of small medallions, one after the other. The pictorial tradition of moral bibles influenced many medieval monuments: miniatures, decoration, including the sculptures of Reims Cathedral, which depict over a hundred scenes from the Apocalypse.
Some 85 miniatures illustrating the commentaries of the Franciscan monk Alexander of Bremen (Minorite, c. 1242) continued the tradition of historical interpretation of the Apocalypse in the German Gothic cycle. Alexander's work, inspired by the views of Joachim of Fiore, provoked the development of a visual tradition that synthesized historical facts and apocalyptic symbols: Roman emperors became horsemen of the apocalypse, heresiarchs sounded their trumpets as apocalyptic angels, and real figures from chronicles were portrayed as demonic monsters. Historical figures appear as equivalents 70: in the scene with the four winds (Rev. 15), the angel bearing the seal of the Living God is interpreted as Constantine the Great, and the two-faced angels trampling the winds, depicted as animal heads, are interpreted as the pagan emperors Maximinus, Maxentius, Licinius, and Severus 71. This manuscript survives in various copies and may have influenced later works, such as the 45 panels on the Apocalypse from an altarpiece created around 1400 by the Master of Bertam.
The iconography of some other German Apocalypses may also have reflected specific political or spiritual ideas. Heinrich Hessler ( Heinrich von Hesler , a poet from a noble and influential family, wrote a verse rendering of the Apocalypse, popular within the Teutonic Order, where manuscripts of his works, complete with miniatures, were produced 72. The illustrations reflect the specific ideology of the Teutonic Order: one miniature depicts knights in the Order's armor, alongside the Prince of the End Times, fighting against Gog and Magog , while the next image depicts the baptism of Jews by a priest of the Teutonic Order (see Fig. 62) 73.
Manuscripts and copies of the Apocalypse were created across Europe, and cathedrals were erected, replete with visualized scenes of the Last Judgment and the New Jerusalem. Years of unending premonition of the apocalypse dragged on. The Black Death (the plague of 1346–1353) raged , giving 74rise to images of a macabre dance in which the Bony One indiscriminately carried away tsar, merchant, priest, and peasant. The idea of the inevitability of pain, suffering, and death, as well as the equality of every person, regardless of status, in the face of this inevitability, exerted a powerful influence on the medieval mentality, gradually eroding and destroying faith in the salvific chosenness of the clergy, who perished just like the most hardened sinners. Salvation from the Black Death depended on luck, hygiene, and immunity—but not prayer. Skepticism and hopeless irony permeate Boccaccio's Decameron, in which ten representatives of the "golden youth" of 14th- century Italy organize a "feast during the plague" in order to brighten the painful expectation of imminent death with frivolous and entertaining stories.
The 14th century was marked by cataclysms : the Great Famine, which began in 1315, gave way to the Black Death, the Guelph-Ghibelline feud in Italy, the Hundred Years' War in France, and the Tatar-Mongol yoke in Eastern Europe. These disasters were understood as apocalyptic punishments, giving rise to unique religious movements and doctrines. News of yet another catastrophe, spreading throughout towns and villages, provoked outbreaks of both deeply Christian and anti-Christian beliefs, often leading to collective psychoses that expressed themselves, on the one hand, in extreme piety and asceticism, and on the other, in Sabbaths, ecstatic dances, and the mass murder of Jews. Ancient superstitions, tabooed by the church, were resurrected: spells, magic, witchcraft, sorcery, and witchcraft—the devil surged into the everyday world with renewed vigor, tempting us with temptation at every turn; and religious extremes, in turn, became a frantic reaction to all this outrage.
Конец ознакомительного фрагмента.
Текст предоставлен ООО «Литрес».
Прочитайте эту книгу целиком, купив полную легальную версию на Литрес.
Безопасно оплатить книгу можно банковской картой Visa, MasterCard, Maestro, со счета мобильного телефона, с платежного терминала, в салоне МТС или Связной, через PayPal, WebMoney, Яндекс.Деньги, QIWI Кошелек, бонусными картами или другим удобным Вам способом.
Примечания
1
Eliade, M. Aspects of Myth. Moscow, 1995, p. 62.
2
Bierlein, J. F. Parallel myths. NY., 1994, p p . 130-132.
3
Belitsky, M. Sumerians. Forgotten World. Moscow, 2000, p. 226
4
Quoted from: Kramer, S. N. History Begins in Sumer. Moscow, 1965, p. 179.
5
Ancient Egyptian “Book of the Dead” // Questions of history / Transl. from ancient Egypt, introduction and comments by Chegodaev, M. A. M., 1994, p. 156.
6
John Climacus. The Ladder, or Spiritual Tablets. Word 6. On the Memory of Death. Moscow, 2005, p. 150.
7
These chapters are probably of later origin, with datings varying between the 8th and 2nd centuries BC.
8
Allen, L. C. The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah, 1976, p . 21-22.
9
The earliest descriptions of the “end of the age” in the New Testament corpus are considered to be the words of Jesus Christ, cited in the Gospel of Mark and repeated in Matthew and Luke.
10
Caesarea, Eusebius. Church History. Book Seven. St. Petersburg , 2013, p. 347 (26).
11
Aune, DE Revelation. Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas. 52 A.
12
The Ancient of Days (from the Book of the Prophet Daniel) is a highly controversial iconographic depiction in Christian art: some see Jesus Christ in the image of the gray-haired old man, others see God the Father, and still others see the unity of the Father and the Son.
13
Iraeneus. Adversus haereses libri V, 30. 3.
14
Ephraim the Syrian. Creations. M., 1994. T. 3, p. 190.
15
Revelation of John the Theologian // Orthodox Encyclopedia. Vol. 24, pp. 705-706.
16
Origen. Commentary on the Gospel of John // Theological Works, No. 38, p. 112
17
Caesarea, Eusebius. Church History. St. Petersburg, 2013, pp. 148 (26), 344 (25).
18
Irenaeus of Lyons. Against Heresies. Proof of the Apostolic Preaching. St. Petersburg , 2010. Book V, Chapter XXVIII, p . 517.
19
Russell, J. Commentary on the Apocalypse. Oxford, Merton College MS. 172.
20
Deschamps, E. Oeuvres complètes de Eustache Deschamps. Paris. Vol. 2, r. 186.
21
For the Western tradition, imagery has never been the subject of dogmatic debate, as it was in the East. The Roman Church declared illustration secondary to the text of Holy Scripture; drawing is complementary, "pleasing the eye and soul" of the reader with visual images. This is why many illuminated manuscripts have survived, including Apocalypses.
22
The depiction of the theophany, the image of God in triumph and heavenly glory, is a striking example of the Roman imperial tradition and new, Christian motifs.
23
The Greek letters Α—the first in the alphabet—and Ω—the last—refer to the omnipotence of Christ, who encompasses all of creation, from the beginning of time to its end. These two letters appear repeatedly in the text of the Apocalypse, as well as in early Christian art.
24
Survived image see : Eton College Library. MS. 124, f. 122r.
25
Apocalyptic imagery in monumental art from the 9th to early 12th centuries remained virtually unchanged. The motifs of the elders' adoration of the lamb and the "transmission of the laws" described above are represented in numerous monuments in Rome and beyond: in the hall of the Basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano, in Santa Cecilia in Trastevere and Santa Maria in Trastevere, in San Marco, San Giovanni a Porta Latina, the Church of San Sebastian on the Palatine Hill, and the Basilica of San Clemente. They are also found in the apse of the Basilica of San Elias near Nepi, San Pietro in Tuscania, the Church of San Sebastian in Tivoli, and elsewhere.
26
Klein , PK Der Apokalypses-Zuklus der Roda-Bibel und seine Stellung in der ikonographischen Tradition // Archivo espanol de Arqueologia , 1974, p . 45-47. Klein, PK La tradicion pictorica de los Beatos // Adas del simposio para el estudio de los codices del Commentario al Apocalipsis de Beato de Liebana, 1980, p . 99-104.
27
Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm 14000.
28
Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, MS lat. 8850, 1v, 180v.
29
TO to others early medieval cycles relate monuments Carolingian period — Ottonian And Romanesque cycles VIII–XII centuries : Apocalypse from Liege 9th century (Valenciennes Bibliothèque municipale. MS. 99) and Carolingian Apocalypse of the 10th century (Bibliothèque nationale, MS. nouv. acq. lat. 1132). Both based on Northumbrian samples of the 8th century .
30
Trier, Stadtbibliothek. Codex 31 .
31
Cambrai, Bibliotheque municipal MS.386.
32
See characteristic For Carolingian apocalypses iconography And location in Virgilius Magiana. Rome, Vat.lat.MS. 3225.
33
Klein, P. K. Die Trierer Apokalypse. Graz, 2001, pp . 148-163.
34
Twenty-six manuscripts from the 9th – 12th centuries (from Spain, primarily from monasteries in Catalonia, Aragon, and Navarre) have survived, either completely or in fragments. They are named after Beatus of Liebana (Latin: Beatus Liebanensis , Spanish: Beato de Liebana ; c. 730–after 798), a monk from the monastery of Santa Maria in the Liebana Valley (Spain), who wrote a commentary on Revelation, "Commentary on the Apocalypse," in 776. This "Commentary" was supplied with numerous illustrations, executed, apparently, on the instructions of the author or with his participation. The work enjoyed great popularity in Spain in the 10th–12th centuries.
35
Firenze, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana. Codex Amiatinus, fol. 796 v.
36
Trier, Stadtbibliothek. VS. 31. Weitzmann K. Late antique and early Christian book illumination. NY, 1977, p . 24.
37
Baumstark , A. Die karolingisch-romanische Majestas Domini und ihre orientalischen Parallelen. Or. Christi. , 1927 , pp . 240-260.
38
Rome, Biblioteca Vallicelliana. M5. B. 25.2.
39
Berlin, Staatsbibliothek. Gültbuch von St. Maximin Trier. MS. Teol. lat. fol. 283.
40
Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek. Cod. ser. nov. 2701, 206r.
41
Justin Martyr . Dialogue With Tryphon // Monuments of ancient Christian literature in Russian translation. Vol . 3. M. , 1862 , ch . 80 .
42
Read more research eschatological eschatology : Landes R., Lest the Millennium be Fulfilled: Apocalyptic Expectations and the Pattern of Western Chronography, 100-800 CE // The Use and Abuse of Eschatology in the Middle Ages. Leuven, 1988.
43
See : Lemprière J. Lempriere's universal biography. NY, 1826, b. 220. Michelet J. L'histoire de France. Paris, 1835, 2:132. Landes R. The Fear of an Apocalyptic Year 1000 // Speculum, Vol. 75, 2000, r . 97-145.
44
Druthmar Christian. Expositio in Matthaeum Evangelistam, 24.42.
45
Glaber Rodulfus. Historiarum libri quinque ab anno incarnationis DCCCC usque ad annum MXLIV.
46
Kaiser-Heinrich-Bibliothek der Staatsbibliothek Bamberg. MSc. Bibl. 140.
47
The Northumbrian model of the Apocalypse manuscripts dates back to the 8th century; the Anglo-Saxon abbot Benedict Biscop (c. 628–690) brought this tradition to England in 676 from his travels to Rome, which served as the source of the iconography for the Bamberg Apocalypse, the frescoes on the north wall of St. Peter's Cathedral V Monkwearmouth (Abbey Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul, Monkwearmouth–Jarrow) and many others monuments .
48
London, British Library. MS Add.10546
49
Bibliothèque nationale de France. MS lat. 1
50
Cardinali, M. La Bibbia carolingia dell'Abbazia di San Paolo fuori le Mura . Vatican, 2009.
51
Saint-Sever Beatus. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, MS lat. 8878.
52
Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France. Manuscript. lat. 6.
53
Berlin, Staatsbibliothek. Theol.lat., fol. 562.
54
Ravasi, G. The Crypt of the Cathedral of Anagni. Genova, 2012, p. 10.
55
Rome, Cod.Vat.lat.39.
56
Oxford, Bodleian Library. MS. 352
57
Ghent, University Library. MS. 92
58
Scenes of the apocalypse from the Book of Flowers are available in multiple copies.
59
Commentary on the Apocalypse. Ambrosius Autpertus Bibl. Patrum, xiii. 403. Haimo of Auxerre. PL 117:1085, Berengaudus. PL 17:876f.
60
Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Berengaudus, fl. ca. 859.
61
Oxford, Bodleian Library . MS Laud misc. 469.
62
Kleiner, F. Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective Volume 1. Boston, p . 317-319.
63
Traeger , J. Mittelalterliche Architekturfiktion: Die Allerheiligenkapelle am Regensburger Domkreuzgang. Munich, 1980, p . 34 - 77. Visser D. Apocalypse as Utopian Expectation (800-1500): The Apocalypse Commentary of Berengaudus of Ferrières and the Relationship Between Exegesis, Liturgy, and Iconography. Brill , 1996, pp. 3-4.
64
Eco, U. History of Beauty. Moscow, 2014, p. 89.
65
Goff, J. L. Intellectuals in the Middle Ages. St. Petersburg , 2003.
66
See : Morgan Librart, MS. 524, Bodleian Library MS Auct.D.4.17., Bibliothèque Nationale, MS fr. 403.
67
Morgan, N. Early Gothic Manuscripts. Oxford, 1988, p. 158.
68
Metz, Biblioteque municipal. MS. Salis 38. London, Lambeth Palace MS.209. Getty Museum, MS Ludwig III, Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Douce 180. Cambridge, Trinity College, MS. Roy. 16.2.
69
Deuchler, F.; Hoffeld, J.M.; Nickel H. The Cloisters Apocalypse. An early 14th manuscripts in fact. NY, 1971.
70
Prague, Kaptulni knihovna, MS Cim. 5. Dresden, Staatsbibliothek, MS. A. 117. Wroclaw, Biblioteka Uniwersytecka, Ms. IQ19. Cambridge, University Library, MS. Mm. V. 31.
71
Cambridge, University Library, MS Mm.5.31, 32v.
72
Mentzel-Reuters, A. Bibeldichtung und deutscher Orden: Studien zur Judith und zu Heinrichs von Hesler Apokalypse // Daphnis, 26, 1997, p . 209-261. Klein, K. Zur Überlieferung der Apokalypse Heinrichs von Hesler // Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum, 1999, p . 66-72.
73
Stuttgart, Wurttembergische Landesbibliothek, MS. Hb. XIII. Helm K. Die Apokalypse Heinrichs von Hesler aus der Danziger Handschrift. Berlin, 1907.
74
Over the next several centuries, the plague did not leave the European continent; until the 15th century, epidemics broke out here and there every 6 to 12 years, and sometimes even more frequently.