Apocalyptic Concepts in the Middle Ages

The first horseman appears on a white horse; white had positive connotations in the Middle Ages: the garments of the righteous and the robes of angels were white. However, is the image of a victorious horseman with a crown and bow (Rev. 6 : 1) positive or negative? The prominent early medieval theologian Irenaeus of Lyons ( second century) believed that the horseman was Jesus himself, and the white horse was a specific medium for the spread of the Gospel. Some theologians considered this interpretation nonsense, since it would simultaneously make Christ both the Lamb and the horseman releasing himself. Furthermore, Christ on a white horse will triumphantly appear in Revelation 19.

Another interpretation of the white horseman, which has generated the most commentary, sees him as the Holy Spirit (a hypostasis of God), and the victorious bow as the apostles striking with the Spirit of the Word. However, this interpretation, in the context of the appearance and symbolism of the next three horsemen, who clearly represent the destructive principle, seems inaccurate. This leads to a negative reading of the horseman as a symbol of Roman imperial triumph (the white horse and crown are attributes of imperial majesty) or as images of false righteousness, false prophets, discord, civil war, and even the Antichrist.

The blood-and-fire color of the second horseman (with a sword in his hands, administering judgment in the name of God ) has led to his association with war. Another interpretation harks back to the idea of martyrdom for Christ, who brought not peace but a sword, and the symbolism testifies to the blood of the righteous, shed for the Word of God.

The appearance of the third horseman on a black horse, holding scales, is marked in a special way: by the voice of one of the four animals, which speaks of the rising prices of barley and wheat, while emphasizing the sanctity of oil and wine. Some interpreters see in this image the idea of a supreme judgment over the mundane, as the scales in the rider's hands are a measure of human values and deeds (commodities, markets), as opposed to spiritual values, oil and wine, sacred materials used in Christian worship—symbols of human salvation. Other interpreters are inclined to see in the black horseman, bringing death, physical and spiritual hunger.

Perhaps only the fourth horseman on a pale horse provokes the least controversy and diametrically opposed interpretations, for his name is Death; he carries nothing in his hands, yet hell follows him. In the ancient Koine Greek dialect, the horseman's deathly color, "khloros," is more pronounced: ash, pale yellow, yellowish-green—and these colors characterized the pallor of a corpse. In some translations, the horseman is sometimes called "pestilence" or "plague," and is depicted with a scythe or sword. The Book of Revelation of John was written in the first century, within the cultural framework of the Roman Empire. Christian exegesis, however, interprets the horsemen as a form of divine punishment, the sins of man. Another interpretation is positivist and historical: the horsemen are seen as either the rulers of Rome, hated by John, or specific disasters—plague, drought, famine, war. In any case, the Roman Empire's equestrians were recognizable not only for their militaristic ambitions but also for their general image of the emperor, a triumphant horseman. The apocalyptic horsemen are an allegory for God's empire, beginning its march on the world and executing its final judgment.

Fig. 10. A rider on a pale horse named Death carries a cup of hellfire in his hand. Behind him is the gaping mouth of hell, where the devil pushes sinners. France, late 13th century. Paris . Biblioth è que nationale de France . Lat . 14410, fol . 11 r .

The specific iconography of hell derives from the motif of soul-devouring, embodied in the images of an oven, a kitchen, or a mouth. " Sheol and Abaddon are never satisfied ," says the proverb (Prov. 27:20). The entrance to hell, or Hades in general, was depicted as an open mouth, similar to that of a lion (sometimes a wolf, a dog, a dragon, or a lion: " Save me from the lion's mouth " Psalm 22:22), and the source of the iconography was the literally visualized words of Scripture: " Sheol is enlarged, and opens her mouth wide " (Is. 5:14); " As if we were cut in pieces and crushed, so our bones are scattered into the jaws of Sheol" (Psalm 141:7). Early depictions of the mouth of hell date back to the 11th century: it gapes either upward, accepting and displaying sinners, or horizontally, "greeting" them (see Figs. 32, 33, 35, 60 ). The mouth of the leviathan was often understood as a metaphor for the gates of hell: " Out of his mouth come flames, sparks of fire leap out; out of his nostrils comes smoke, as from a seething pot or cauldron. His breath kindles coals, and out of his mouth comes a flame. On his neck dwells strength, and terror flees before him " (Job 41:11–14). The whale that swallowed Jonah was also identified with the leviathan, and its belly with hell.

With the opening of the sixth seal, a great earthquake occurred: the sun darkened, the moon turned like blood, the stars of heaven fell to the earth, the sky rolled up like a scroll—an earthquake began. Then all people realized that the Day of God's wrath had come and nothing could escape Him.

Fig. 13. In the fresco of the famous Scrovegni Chapel, Giotto depicted an angel rolling up the sky like a scroll (Rev. 6:14). Giotto, detail from The Last Judgment, early 14th century, Italy, Padua.

Afterwards John saw how the elect were sealed, so that the four angels who held the winds would harm the sea and the land, but not them (see Fig. 14). It is emphasized that those who believe and suffer for Christ will be deemed worthy of contemplating Him and staying near Him. The Lamb removes the last, seventh seal... And the end of the world begins: “ there was silence in heaven, and seven angels appeared who stood before God; and to them were given seven trumpets. Then came another angel and stood before the altar, having a golden censer. The angel took the censer, and filled it with fire from the altar, and cast it to the earth: there were voices, and thunderings, and lightnings, and an earthquake. And the seven angels which had the seven trumpets prepared themselves to sound. The first angel sounded, and there followed hail and fire mingled with blood, and they fell to the earth; and a third of the trees were burned up, and all the green grass was burned up (see Fig. 15, 16, 19).

"The third angel sounded, and a great star, blazing like a torch, fell from heaven and fell on a third of the rivers and on the springs of water. The name of the star is Wormwood. A third of the waters became wormwood, and many people died from the waters because they became bitter. The fourth angel sounded, and a third of the sun, a third of the moon, and a third of the stars were struck, so that a third of them were darkened. The day did not shine for a third of the time, nor did the night either" (8: 1-12 ).

The fifth angel sounded his trumpet, and John saw a star fall from heaven to earth, and it was given the key to the pit of the abyss. Smoke came out of it, everything became dark, then locusts with the power of a scorpion came out of the smoke to the earth to torment people without God's seal on their foreheads. After him, the king of the abyss appeared - Abaddon (see Fig. 17, 59). Having sounded his trumpet, the sixth angel released four angels to kill a third of people. The mounted army of death had armor of fire, hyacinth, and brimstone; the heads of their horses were like the heads of lions, from their mouths came fire, smoke, and brimstone, which killed a third of people (9:1-18; see Fig. 50, 55, 63, 64 ).

Fig. 17. The Apocalypse of Saint-Severus depicts Abaddon and locusts. In ancient Hebrew, abaddon —place of destruction—was originally an abstract concept of the space of non-existence, a synonym for Sheol-hell (the abode of all the dead). "Sheol and Abaddon are open before the Lord; how much more the hearts of the sons of men" (Proverbs 15:11). "Sheol is naked before Him, and there is no covering for Abaddon. He stretches out the north over the void; He hangs the earth upon nothing" (Job 26:6-7 ) . In the Book of Job, Abaddon is identified with death. The image of an angel appointed as ruler over hell appears in the 1st Book of Enoch. In Revelation, Abaddon is finally personified, marking the bottomless pit, the abyss, and destruction. In John, the Old Testament idea is contaminated with the Greek Apollo (the cult of Apollo the Destroyer was introduced by Emperor Augustus). The figure of Abaddon is linked to the medieval concept of hell—a place not of destruction, but of eternal torment for sinners. Paris. Bibliothèque nationale de France, MS lat. 8878, fol. 145v.

Chapter 11 tells of two chosen witnesses who prophesied for 1,260 days, after which they were destroyed by " the beast that ascends out of the abyss ." However, after three and a half days, the prophets will ascend to heaven. An earthquake will begin, 7,000 human names will perish, the seventh trumpet will sound, and the Liturgy of the Elders will continue, falling prostrate before God and asking for Judgment: " And the temple of God was opened in heaven, and the ark of His covenant was seen in His temple. And there were lightnings, and voices, and thunderings, and an earthquake, and great hail " (11:19).

The Woman appears, clothed in the sun, with the moon at her feet and a crown of twelve stars on her head. She is confronted by a red dragon-devil with ten horns on his seven heads crowned with diadems, who desires to destroy the Woman and the Child. But " war broke out in heaven: Michael and his angels fought against the dragon, and the dragon fought and his angels, but they prevailed not, neither was their place found any more in heaven. So the great dragon was cast out, that old serpent, called the Devil, and Satan, who deceives the whole world: he was cast out into the earth, and his angels were cast out with him " (12:7–9).

In the 12th chapter of Revelation, the devil appears (goes back to the ancient Greek διάβολος , Latin diaboulus - slanderer, accuser - arose during the translation into Greek from the Hebrew ha - satan "Satan"), appearing in the form of a many-headed dragon, for the faces of the unclean are countless. In the Middle Ages, the devil was the most common name for the supreme spirit of evil, but other designations of the infernal pantheon could also serve as his nomination: Lucifer, Beelzebub, Leviathan, Satan, the dragon, and others. The name Lucifer— " Daystar" in the Synodal translation — is taken from the Old Testament (chapter 14 of the Book of the Prophet Isaiah, translated into the Vulgate), which tells of the "son of the morning" who trampled heaven, desired to be equal to God, became proud, and was therefore cast down to hell, into the depths of the underworld. The image of the Fallen One was further contaminated with the "anointed cherub" (from the Book of Ezekiel), seduced by his own beauty and expelled from Eden— to form a single negative character. The Devil acquired another of his many names — Lucifer: once radiant and beautiful, but later disfigured by the patina of pride, an angel fallen into Tartarus — the prince of darkness. However, until the late Middle Ages, the name Lucifer was not popular; it caused a great deal of controversy between the word's negative semantics and its positive etymology (Latin: lucifer) . - the bearer of light, which was associated with Jesus), so in the early centuries preference was given to Satan and the devil.

In his vision, John continues to behold another apocalyptic monster given power over humanity: "And I saw a beast coming up out of the sea, having seven heads and ten horns. On his horns were ten diadems, and on his heads were the names of blasphemy. The beast was like a leopard; his feet were like a bear's, and his mouth like a lion's mouth. And the dragon gave him his power and his throne and great authority." John saw that one of his heads seemed mortally wounded, but this mortal wound was healed.

" And all the earth marveled, following the beast; and they worshiped the dragon, which gave authority to the beast. And they worshiped the beast, saying, 'Who is like the beast? And who is able to make war with him?' And a mouth was given to him speaking great things and blasphemies " (13:1–5).

The thirteenth chapter gives an image of the third beast: “ I saw another beast coming up out of the earth, and he had two horns like a lamb, and he spoke like a dragon. He exercises all the authority of the first beast in his presence, and causes the whole earth and those who dwell on it to worship the first beast. And he deceives those who dwell on the earth because of the signs which he was granted to do in the presence of the beast, telling those who dwell on the earth to make an image to the beast who had the wound by the sword and lived. And he was granted the power to give breath to the image of the beast, so that the image of the beast would both speak and cause everyone who would not worship the image of the beast to be killed. And he causes all, both small and great, rich and poor, free and slave, to receive a mark on their right hand or on their foreheads; and that no one might buy or sell except one who had the mark or the name of the beast or the number of his name. Here is wisdom. Let him who has understanding count the number of the beast, for it is the number of a man; and his number is Six hundred and sixty-six " (13:11–18).

It's quite difficult to understand the three demonic beasts presented in chapters 12 and 13 of Revelation. Is the author of these nightmarish visions merely depicting the many faces of Satan and evil in the universe? Or does each of these beasts have a specific semantic meaning? At the very least, their descriptions vary. They appear in the text sequentially, seemingly taking over from one another in their ungodly and destructive activities.

The first beast—the red dragon—pursues the woman clothed with the sun, thirsting to devour her child. The dragon's seven heads, each with ten horns, are crowned with seven diadems, and its tail draws a third of the stars from heaven to earth. This " old serpent, called the devil and Satan, " is cast down from heaven to earth along with all his angels of darkness. It's not hard to see an analogy here with the Old Testament's casting down of Lucifer.

The second beast, emerging from the sea, is described in somewhat greater detail. It has the same number of heads and horns as the first beast, but the number of its crowns has increased from seven to ten. The dragon transfers its power, throne, and authority to it. The second beast resembles a leopard, a bear, and a lion all at once. The resemblance to these three animals alludes to the Old Testament symbolic representation of three powerful ancient empires: Greece (leopard; Daniel 7:6), Medo-Persia (bear; Daniel 7:3), and Babylon (lion; Daniel 7:4). Another interpretation holds that the leopard represents the cunning of the Antichrist, the bear his stubbornness, and the lion his arrogance and greedy ambition.

The third beast comes out of the earth. It has two horns like a lamb, speaks like a dragon, and compels people to worship the beast from the sea. The third beast clearly continues the dark work of the first two beasts, drawing ever closer to people. It is this beast that deceives those living on earth with miracles, for example, by bringing down fire from heaven and also by inflicting on the right hand or forehead of those deceived the mark of the devil, the number of the beast—666. The warning about this two-horned figure as a false prophet and false Christ performing pseudo-miracles extends from the 13th chapter of Revelation, from the 13th chapter of Deuteronomy (Deut. 13:2), as well as from the Gospel of Matthew (Matthew 24:24).

All three apocalyptic beasts follow one another in the order of their appearance in the text. They are largely identical, yet they also have significant differences that should inform the reader. What is that?

In the 20th century, with the ever-increasing democratization of society and the unprecedented opportunity to profess almost any views, the algorithm for depicting and describing the evil, dark, satanic, and diabolical was especially clearly, distinctly and distinctly exposed, organized not only and not so much as an alternative, as distinct from the divine, but as a direct mirror opposite to the latter, as a travesty, desecrated likeness of God or a distorted The identity of Christ. A telling example is one of the nine commandments of Anton Szandor LaVey's The Satanic Bible, which states: " Satan represents vengeance, and does not turn the other cheek !" Such antitheses or reversals in the representation of evil always produce a certain effect, and therefore have been appropriated as a cinematic device. For example, in Roman Polanski's Rosemary's Baby , the main character, whose name clearly evokes the Virgin Mary, is destined to bear and give birth to the devil's offspring—the Antichrist.

Returning to the three apocalyptic beasts, we can now assume with a fair degree of certainty that they represent a perverted model of the divine trinity: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The dragon-like first beast is called the " old serpent " and was cast down from heaven to earth. Its entire image, echoing both the serpent-tempter of Eden and the rebellious Lucifer, is constructed as a blasphemous rival to the Old Testament Sabaoth, as a contrast to God the Father. The second beast—the Antichrist—is depicted as a travesty of God the Son: his healed mortal wound alludes to the resurrection of Christ. In contrast to the Son of Man, he speaks blasphemously and calls for worship not of God the Father, but of the dragon—his terrifying double. The third beast is the successor of the first two and an inseparable part of the devil's trinity: on the one hand, he is a false prophet, like a preacher who introduces the word of God to the masses and recruits followers, and on the other hand, he is like the Holy Spirit, since it is he who “ was given the power to put spirit into the image of the beast ” (Rev. 13:15).

Having described in detail the three demonic beasts in chapters 12 and 13, in chapter 14 John testifies to the great moment of the harvest of the world and human souls: “And one like the Son of Man sits on a cloud, and on his head is a golden crown, and in his hand is a sharp sickle. And another angel came out of the temple and cried with a loud voice to him who sat on the cloud, ‘Thrust in your sickle and reap, for the time has come to harvest, for the harvest of the earth is ripe.’ And he who sat on the cloud thrust in his sickle to the earth, and the earth was reaped. And another angel came out of the temple which is in heaven, also having a sharp sickle. And another angel came out from behind the altar, who had power over fire, and cried with a loud cry to him who had the sharp sickle, saying, ‘Thrust in your sharp sickle and gather the clusters of the vine of the earth, for its grapes are ripe.’” And the angel thrust in his sickle into the earth, and gathered the vine of the earth, and cast it into the great winepress of the wrath of God. And the grapes in the winepress were trodden outside the city, and blood came out of the winepress, even to the bridles of the horses, for a distance of one thousand six hundred furlongs " (14:15–22).

Fig. 27. The grape harvest symbolizes the "harvest" of the world. England , 1320-1330 London . British Library. Add . M.S. 17333, fol . 28 r .

Chapters fifteen and sixteen describe the judgments of the seven angels in bowls filled with God's wrath: " The first angel went and poured out his bowl on the earth: and there came a grievous and disgusting sore on the people who had the mark of the beast and on those who worshiped his image. The second angel poured out his bowl on the sea: and it became blood as of a dead man, and every living thing died in the sea. The third angel poured out his bowl on the rivers and springs of water: and it became blood. The fourth angel poured out his bowl on the sun: and it was given power to scorch men with fire. And men were scorched with great heat, and they blasphemed the name of God, who had power over these plagues, and did not repent, so as to give Him glory. "The fifth angel poured out his bowl on the throne of the beast: and his kingdom became dark, and they gnawed their tongues for pain, and blasphemed the God of heaven because of their pains and their sores; and they did not repent of their deeds. The sixth angel poured out his bowl on the great river Euphrates: and its water was dried up, that the way of the kings from the east might be prepared."

“And I saw three unclean spirits like frogs come out of the mouth of the dragon, and out of the mouth of the beast, and out of the mouth of the false prophet. These are the spirits of demons, working signs. These go out to the kings of the earth of the whole world, to gather them together to the battle of that great day of God Almighty (The image of foul language and blasphemy is also conveyed by the image of vile frogs crawling out of the mouths, see Fig. 2: 8). Behold, I come as a thief: blessed is he that watcheth, and keepeth his garments, lest he walk naked, and they see his shame… And he gathered them together to a place which is called in Hebrew Armageddon. And the seventh angel poured out his bowl into the air: and out of the temple of heaven came a loud voice from the throne, saying, It is finished. And there were lightnings, thunderings, and voices; and there was a great earthquake, such as had not been since men were upon the earth. Such an earthquake! So great! And the great city was divided into three parts, and the cities of the nations fell: and Babylon the great was remembered before God, to give her the cup of the wine of the fierceness of His anger. And every island fled away, and the mountains were not found. And hail, about a talent in weight, fell from heaven upon men. And men blasphemed God because of the plague of the hail: for the plague of the hail was exceeding grievous (16:1–21, see figs. 29, 30).

Then comes the punishment of the Great Whore of Babylon, riding on a scarlet beast with seven heads and ten horns. However, this is not just a woman, but a city that must be burned, "standing afar off for fear of her torment, saying, 'Woe, woe to the great city Babylon, that mighty city! For in one hour your judgment has come '" (18:10, see Fig. 32 ).

After this, another thousand years will pass, at the end of which Satan will be released from prison and will once again begin to corrupt the nations. But God's wrath will destroy him once again. In fact, this is where the Last Judgment begins: the sea gives up its dead, death and hell give up their dead, so that everyone will be judged (19–20).

These chapters constitute the central corpus of John's visions, consisting of three sections: the vision of the seals (6:1–8 : 1), the vision of the trumpets (8:2–11 : 14), and the vision of the bowls ( 15–16 :21). The narrative is full of apocalyptic symbolism and the unified imagery of the Apocalypse and the Last Judgment unfolding on earth. Each cycle of plagues increases in scale, culminating in a war between the forces of evil and the people of God and the final Judgment. Good is contrasted with evil, Babylon with the New Jerusalem.

In conclusion, John sees a new heaven and a new earth, after the Judgment. He is given a vision of the holy city—the New Jerusalem—prepared and adorned by God, like a bride for her husband: “ Behold, the tabernacle of God is with men, and He will dwell with them; they shall be His people, and God Himself will be with them and be their God. And God will wipe away every tear from their eyes; and there shall be no more death, neither sorrow, nor crying, neither shall there be any more pain, for the former things have passed away ” (21:3–4).

The New Jerusalem is a lofty city of pure gold, like clear glass, adorned with multicolored precious stones and pearls, with twelve gates, at which are twelve angels. The wall of the crystal city has twelve foundations, and on them are the names of the twelve Apostles of the Lamb. The length, width, and height of the city, built of jasper (or diamond), are perfectly equal. The city itself is a divine temple, the place of human life in God.